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Amphetamine
α-Methylphenethylamine
Speed, Pep, Adderall, Dexedrine, Bennies
Amphetamine is a central nervous system stimulantcitation needed of the substituted phenethylamine class, first discovered in 1887 by Lazăr Edeleanu. It exists as two enantiomers, levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine, and serves as the parent compound of its own structural class. Prescribed clinically for ADHD and narcolepsy, it is also used recreationally for its euphoriant and wakefulness-promoting properties.
Dosage & Duration
Dosage
Doses are population estimates that vary widely between individuals.
Threshold~5 mg
Light5-15 mg
Moderate15-30 mg
Strong30-50 mg
Heavy50+ mg
Bioavailability
75-90%
Duration
Onset20-60 minutes
Come Up1-2 hours
Peak2-4 hours
Offset1-2 hours
After Effects2-24 hours
Total4-8 hours
Half-life
9-14 hours
Subjective Effects
Legacy content. A statistically backed ontology from Mindstate Design Labs is coming soon.
Effects vary widely by individual, dose, and context.
Physical
The physical effects of amphetamine can be broken down into several components which progressively intensify proportional to dosage.
Cognitive
The cognitive effects of amphetamine can be broken down into several components which progressively intensify proportional to dosage. The general head space of amphetamine is described by many as one of extreme mental stimulation, increased focus, and powerful euphoria. It contains a large number of typical stimulant cognitive effects. Although negative side effects are usually mild at low to moderate dosages, they become increasingly likely to manifest themselves with higher amounts or extended usage. This particularly holds true during the offset of the experience.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Amphetamine exerts its primary pharmacological effects by promoting the release of dopamine and norepinephrine from presynaptic nerve terminals.citation needed It enters neurons via monoamine transporters (DAT, NET, and to a lesser extent SERT), where it acts as a competitive substrate that inhibits monoamine reuptake. Once inside the terminal, amphetamine displaces monoamines from vesicular storage by interacting with VMAT2, collapsing the vesicular pH gradient and expanding the cytosolic monoamine pool available for reverse transport. Amphetamine is also a potent full agonist at trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), activation of which triggers intracellular kinase cascades (PKA, PKC, CaMKIIα) that phosphorylate monoamine transporters, further promoting neurotransmitter efflux into the synapse. At very high doses, amphetamine weakly inhibits monoamine oxidase. It also inhibits the neuronal glutamate transporter EAAT3 (SLC1A1), reducing glutamate clearance and potentiating excitatory neurotransmission.1 The only known post-synaptic receptor at which amphetamine binds in humans is the 5-HT1A receptor, where it acts as an agonist with low micromolar affinity.
Pharmacokinetics
Amphetamine is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, with oral bioavailability typically around 90%.citation needed Absorption is favored in more basic intestinal environments, where the drug exists in a more lipid-soluble form. Peak plasma concentrations are reached approximately 1 to 3 hours after oral administration. Roughly 20% of circulating amphetamine is bound to plasma proteins, and the drug distributes readily into most tissues including brain and cerebrospinal fluid. Amphetamine is metabolized hepatically, primarily by CYP2D6, along with dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH), flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 (FMO3), butyrate-CoA ligase (XM-ligase), and glycine N-acyltransferase (GLYAT). The major metabolic pathways include aromatic hydroxylation, aliphatic hydroxylation, and N-dealkylation, though a significant portion of the drug is excreted unchanged. Elimination half-life varies by enantiomer and is strongly influenced by urinary pH: at normal urine pH, the d-enantiomer has a half-life of approximately 9 to 11 hours and the l-enantiomer 11 to 14 hours, with highly acidic urine reducing these to around 7 hours and highly alkaline urine extending them up to 34 hours. Approximately 90% of an ingested dose is eliminated within 3 days.
Dangerous
Highest riskThese combinations are considered extremely harmful and should always be avoided. Reactions to these drugs taken in combination are highly unpredictable and have a potential to cause death.
Unsafe
AvoidThere is considerable risk of physical harm when taking these combinations, they should be avoided where possible.
Caution
Use cautionThese combinations are not usually physically harmful, but may produce undesirable effects, such as physical discomfort or overstimulation. Extreme use may cause physical health issues. Synergistic effects may be unpredictable. Care should be taken when choosing to use this combination.
Tolerance
Tolerance timelines are rules of thumb, not exact schedules, and vary widely between individuals and use patterns.
Full Tolerance
Prolonged repeated amphetamine use can reduce responsiveness to many effects, often rapidly when chronic high doses are involved. As tolerance rises, larger doses may be needed for comparable effects. Outside medical settings, tolerance usually develops quickly and can reduce many beneficial effects. Different effects may also show tolerance on different timelines.
Baseline Reset
1-2 weeks
Half Tolerance
3-7 days
Cross Tolerance
Dopaminergic stimulants
Harm Potential
Addiction & Dependence
Psychological
HighAmphetamine has high abuse potential and can cause psychological dependence with chronic use. Addiction is a serious risk with heavy recreational use but is unlikely to arise from typical medical use at therapeutic doses. Cravings and withdrawal effects occur if use is suddenly discontinued.citation needed
Physical
ModerateTolerance develops rapidly with recreational use, requiring increasingly larger doses. Withdrawal symptoms occur in roughly 88% of chronic high-dose users, persisting for 3-4 weeks with a marked crash phase during the first week.citation needed Symptoms include fatigue, depression, anxiety, irritability, intense hunger, disturbed sleep, and drug craving.
Toxicity
Cardiovascular
Cardiovascular effects including hypertension, tachycardia, and arrhythmias occur during intoxication; severe hypertensive crises, heart attacks, and circulatory collapse are primarily associated with high doses or pre-existing cardiovascular conditions.citation needed
Central Nervous System
No evidence of direct neurotoxicity in humans at typical doses; however, high-dose exposure may cause indirect neurotoxicity, particularly when hyperpyrexia occurs. Prolonged heavy use can lead to speech and thought disturbances.
Renal
Kidney damage is primarily associated with rhabdomyolysis from high-dose use, particularly when hyperthermia occurs; acute renal failure has been reported in overdose and fatality cases.citation needed
Hepatic
Hepatic injury has been reported in overdose contexts; liver damage and failure are possible with chronic high-dose use.citation needed
Dental and Oral
Long-term use is associated with dental caries, tooth loss, and gingivitis; jaw tension causes bruxism leading to permanent tooth wear and cracking.citation needed
Psychosis Risk
Stimulant psychosis can occur with severe overdose or chronic heavy use, presenting with paranoia, hallucinations, delusions, and bizarre or violent behavior.citation needed Symptoms usually disappear within weeks after cessation, but approximately 5-15% of users fail to recover completely. Psychosis rarely arises from therapeutic use. Risk increases with multi-day use, sleep deprivation, and high doses.
Seizure Risk
Amphetamine reduces seizure threshold and convulsions can occur at high doses.citation needed Fatal poisoning is usually preceded by convulsions and coma.3 Seizures are rare at typical doses but represent a serious risk in overdose situations.
History & Culture
Discovery and Early Synthesis
Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 by Romanian chemist Lazăr Edeleanu while working in Germany. Edeleanu originally named the compound phenylisopropylamine, though its central nervous system effects remained entirely unknown for the next four decades. The substance's stimulant properties…
Legality
International
UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1971: scheduled
By Country
Illegal7
IsraelIllegalIsraeli Dangerous Drugs Ordinance and Ministry of Health prescription procedure35
Amphetamine is officially treated as a dangerous drug and is included in the prescription table.
New ZealandIllegalMisuse of Drugs Act 1975 (New Zealand), current in-force consolidation latest version as at 10 July 2026: Schedule 2 Part 1 clause 1, sections 6(1)-(2) and 7(1)-(2), and Schedule 5 clause 1; Misuse of Drugs (Changes to Controlled Drugs) Order 2005 (SR 2005/175) and Misuse of Drugs (Changes to Controlled Drugs) Order Commencement Order 2005 (SR 2005/229).434445464748495051
Amphetamine remains expressly named in current Schedule 2 Part 1 clause 1 as a Class B controlled drug; the historical B1/B2 terminology describes the Part 1/Part 2 grouping, while the current Act is headed Class B. The House resolution approving the 2005 order occurred on 2 August 2005, but the commencement order made the reclassification effective on 9 September 2005. Unauthorized ordinary possession or use is subject to the section 7(2)(b) maximum of 3 months' imprisonment or a NZ$500 fine or both; unauthorized import/export, production/manufacture, supply/administration/offer involving Class B, or possession for those dealing purposes is subject to the section 6(2)(b) maximum of 14 years' imprisonment. These are statutory maximums, not automatic sentences. The Act contains exemptions and licensed/permitted conduct, and Schedule 5's 5-gram/100-form threshold creates a rebuttable presumption relevant to possession for supply.
SingaporeIllegalSingapore lists amphetamine as a Class A controlled drug in the First Schedule to the Misuse of Drugs Act 1973. The Act criminalises possession, consumption, trafficking, manufacture, and import or export of controlled drugs except where authorised under the statutory regime.
ThailandIllegalNotification of the Ministry of Public Health, Specifying Names of Category 1 Narcotics, B.E. 2565 (2022), as amended through No. 5, B.E. 2568 (2025)73747576
Amphetamine is listed as a Category I narcotic under Thailand’s Narcotics Code. The current listing, effective 24 November 2022, identifies amphetamine by name and chemical name; later Category I amendments have not rescheduled it. Unauthorized production, import, export, sale, or possession of a Category I narcotic is prohibited, and use is separately punishable.
Controlled / restricted6
AustraliaSchedule 8Controlled substance under national scheduling. Personal quantities under 1.5 grams were decriminalized in the Australian Capital Territory as of October 28, 2023.5
IndiaRestrictedNarcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 198533
India lists amphetamine as a psychotropic substance in the Schedule to the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985. The Act prohibits manufacture, possession, sale, purchase, transport, use, consumption, import, export and transhipment except for medical or scientific purposes and subject to any required licence, permit or authorization.
PhilippinesRestrictedThe Philippines lists amfetamine, also named amphetamine, in Schedule II under Republic Act No. 9165. The statute regulates listed drugs as dangerous drugs and criminalises unauthorised sale, delivery, distribution, transport, manufacture, and possession.
South AfricaRestrictedMedicines and Related Substances Act: Schedules63
South Africa lists amphetamine and its salts, including preparations, in Schedule 8 of the medicines schedules. The Schedule also extends control to relevant isomers, esters, ethers, salts, preparations and mixtures unless expressly excluded or listed elsewhere.
UkraineRestrictedCabinet of Ministers Resolution No. 770 of 6 May 200077
Ukraine places amphetamine in Table II, List 2 of its national list of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors. List 2 is the category for psychotropic substances whose circulation is restricted.
Prescription19
United StatesPrescription onlyControlled under the Controlled Substances Act.85 Classified as having high abuse potential with accepted medical use. Illegal to sell without DEA licensure and illegal to possess without a valid prescription.
By state
Across the 50 states, D.C., and the permanent territories, most jurisdictions treat amphetamine consistently with federal law, though a number of states impose their own controls or classifications that diverge from the federal position.
KansasRestricted
Puerto RicoPrescription onlyPuerto Rico Controlled Substances Act, Act No. 4 of June 23, 1971, art. 202, Clasificación III(a)(1), 24 L.P.R.A. § 220288
Amphetamine, its salts, optical isomers, and salts of its optical isomers are classified in Puerto Rico’s Clasificación III. The substance remains controlled and available only through the territory’s regulated medical and pharmacy system, but Puerto Rico places it in a lower classification than federal Schedule II.
BelgiumPrescription onlyBelgium lists amphetamine in Annex IIB to the Royal Decree of 6 September 2017, covering 1971 Convention Schedule II substances and other internationally controlled psychotropics. Medicines containing an Annex II substance may be supplied to the public only on a signed and dated medical prescription with the required particulars.
CanadaPrescription onlyControlled Drugs and Substances Act, Schedule I item 19; Food and Drug Regulations, Part G §G.04.00113141516
Since 6 November 2012, amphetamine has been listed in Schedule I, item 19 of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. Unauthorized possession, trafficking, production, importation, and exportation are prohibited. The Food and Drug Regulations define amphetamine and its salts as designated controlled drugs and regulate their prescribing, sale, and provision by authorized practitioners and pharmacists.
ChinaPrescription onlyNMPA, MPS and NHC Announcement No. 55 (2025), Pharmaceutical Psychotropic Drugs Catalogue (2025)1718192021
Amphetamine (苯丙胺; Amfetamine; CAS 300-62-9) is a Class I pharmaceutical psychotropic drug under the 2025 Catalogue, which took effect upon publication in July 2025. Class I psychotropic drugs may not be sold at retail; supply is confined to designated wholesalers and approved medical institutions, and only physicians holding Class I prescribing qualifications may prescribe them. The Catalogue covers possible salts, single-ingredient preparations, and stereoisomers unless otherwise specified. The July 2026 adjustment adds three other substances and does not alter amphetamine’s classification.
DenmarkPrescription onlyDenmark lists amphetamine as item 49 of List B to Executive Order No. 405 of 2026 on euphoriant substances. List B substances may be used only for medical or scientific purposes, and medical dispensing is reserved to authorised pharmacies and health professionals under the Order.
FrancePrescription onlyArrêté du 22 février 1990 fixant la liste des substances classées comme stupéfiants, art. 1 et annexe III; Code de la santé publique, art. R. 5132-292627282930
Amphetamine is classified as a narcotic (stupéfiant) in Annex III of the 22 February 1990 Order, which has been in force since 8 June 1990. The Annex covers its preparations except the specifically named tablet preparation containing 5 mg amphetamine sulfate and 100 mg phenobarbital per tablet. Prescription and dispensing are prohibited unless the narcotic is contained in a pharmaceutical specialty or preparation and subject to the narcotics-prescription rules. Unlawful production or manufacture is punishable by 20 years’ imprisonment and a €7.5 million fine; unlawful transport, possession, offering, supply, or acquisition is punishable by 10 years’ imprisonment and a €7.5 million fine.
IrelandPrescription onlyMisuse of Drugs Regulations 2017 (S.I. No. 173/2017)34
Ireland lists amphetamine in Schedule 2 of the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2017, including its stereoisomers, salts and preparations. Production, supply, import and export are generally prohibited, while practitioners and pharmacists have defined professional exemptions for Schedule 2 drugs.
MexicoPrescription onlyLey General de Salud, Article 24540
Mexico lists amphetamine in Group II of Article 245 of the Ley General de Salud. Group II substances have therapeutic value but constitute a serious public-health problem and are subject to the controlled-substances provisions of Chapter V.
NorwayPrescription onlyNarkotikaforskriften (Forskrift om narkotika)52
Controlled substance under Norwegian drug legislation. Purchase and possession without a valid prescription are prohibited.
PolandPrescription only
South KoreaPrescription onlyAmphetamine is listed in Annex 4 as a psychotropic drug under Article 2(3)(b), the category for drugs with a high risk of misuse, very limited medical use, and potential for severe physical or psychological dependence. This designation covers amphetamine, its salts, isomers, and salts of isomers. Unauthorised persons may not possess, use, manufacture, import, export, supply, or prescribe it; lawful medical administration is subject to the Narcotics Control Act's regulated handler and prescription rules. Annex 4 was last amended on 12 August 2025 and remains in the Enforcement Decree in force from 1 February 2026.
SpainPrescription onlyReal Decreto 2829/1977, de 6 de octubre69
Spain places amphetamine in List II of Annex 1 to Real Decreto 2829/1977. Pharmacies may dispense preparations containing List II substances only on a medical prescription, and import or export requires prior authorization from the Directorate-General for Pharmaceutical Regulation.
SwedenPrescription onlyLäkemedelsverkets föreskrifter LVFS 2011:10 om förteckningar över narkotika70
Classified as a controlled drug and included in List II under Swedish law, corresponding to List P II of the 1971 Psychotropic Convention.
United Arab EmiratesPrescription onlyThe United Arab Emirates lists amphetamine in the psychotropic schedules attached to Federal Decree-Law No. 30 of 2021, including stereoisomers, derivatives, metabolites, salts and preparations. The Ministry of Health and Prevention classifies amfetamine as Psychotropic Schedule II for traveller controls and requires a medical prescription or attested medical report for permitted personal quantities.
United KingdomPrescription onlyLegal / decriminalized1
PortugalDecriminalizedAmphetamine is listed in Table II-B, which also covers its derivatives, salts, and preparations. Since 1 July 2001, consumption, acquisition, and possession for personal use are administrative offences rather than crimes. Possession exceeding a 10-day average-consumption quantity is only an indication of a possible non-personal purpose; if exclusive personal use is established, the case is dismissed, no indictment is issued, or the person is acquitted and referred to a deterrence commission. Unauthorized production, sale, transfer, import, export, transport, or possession outside that personal-use regime remains a trafficking offence punishable by 4 to 12 years' imprisonment.
References
Source Pages
Citations
- Suzanne M. Underhill, David S. Wheeler, Minghua Li, Spencer D. Watts, Susan L. Ingram, & Susan G. Amara. (July 2014). Amphetamine modulates excitatory neurotransmission through endocytosis of the glutamate transporter EAAT3 in dopamine neurons. Neuron, 83(2), 404–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2014.05.0431
- Gregory M. Miller. (January 2011). The emerging role of trace amine-associated receptor 1 in the functional regulation of monoamine transporters and dopaminergic activity. Journal of Neurochemistry, 116(2), 164–176. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07109.x1
- Dextroamphetamine Sulfate Tablets, USP – Prescribing Information. U.S. Food and Drug Administration / DailyMed (n.d.). https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/fda/fdaDrugXsl.cfm?setid=b2ad8d2b-ed94-43cd-95ea-85e91d997f261
- Bradley C. (2011). Bradley's Benzedrine Studies on Children with Behavioral Disorders. Journal of Attention Disorders. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3064242/1
- The ACT Drug Decriminalisation Laws: Here's What It Means — CODA Criminal Law. (n.d.). https://codalaw.com.au/the-act-drug-decriminalisation-laws-heres-what-it-means/1
- Suchtmittelgesetz (SMG); Suchtgiftverordnung, Anhang IV. ris.bka.gv.at (n.d.). https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=100110401
- Suchtmittelgesetz (SMG); Suchtgiftverordnung, Anhang IV. ris.bka.gv.at (n.d.). https://ris.bka.gv.at/NormDokument.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Anlage=4&Artikel=&Gesetzesnummer=10011053&Paragraf=&Uebergangsrecht=1
- Royal Decree of 6 September 2017 regulating narcotic and psychotropic substances. ejustice.just.fgov.be (n.d.). https://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/eli/besluit/2017/09/06/2017031231/justel1
- Royal Decree of 6 September 2017 regulating narcotic and psychotropic substances. fagg-afmps.be (n.d.). https://www.fagg-afmps.be/sites/default/files/content/INSP/NARC/annex%20II_non%20official%20consolidated%20version.pdf1
- Royal Decree of 6 September 2017 regulating narcotic and psychotropic substances. fagg-afmps.be (n.d.). https://www.fagg-afmps.be/sites/default/files/content/INSP/NARC/kb-ar-20170906.pdf1
Further Reading
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Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
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