Amphetamine
α-Methylphenethylamine
Speed, Pep, Adderall, Dexedrine, Bennies
Amphetamine is a central nervous system stimulant1 of the substituted phenethylamine class, first discovered in 1887 by Lazăr Edeleanu. It exists as two enantiomers—levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine1—and serves as the parent compound of its own structural class, which includes substances such as methamphetamine and MDMA. Prescribed clinically for ADHD and narcolepsy1, it is also used recreationally for its euphoriant1 and wakefulness-promoting properties.
Contents
Dosage & Duration
Dosage
Threshold~5 mg
Light5-15 mg
Moderate15-30 mg
Strong30-50 mg
Heavy50+ mg
Bioavailability
~90%
Duration
Onset20-60 minutes
Come Up60-120 minutes
Peak2-4 hours
Offset1-2 hours
After Effects2-24 hours
Total4-8 hours
Half-life
9-14 hours
Subjective Effects
Effects vary widely by individual, dose, and context.
Physical
The physical effects of amphetamine can be broken down into several components which progressively intensify proportional to dosage.
Cognitive
The cognitive effects of amphetamine can be broken down into several components which progressively intensify proportional to dosage. The general head space of amphetamine is described by many as one of extreme mental stimulation, increased focus, and powerful euphoria. It contains a large number of typical stimulant cognitive effects. Although negative side effects are usually mild at low to moderate dosages, they become increasingly likely to manifest themselves with higher amounts or extended usage. This particularly holds true during the offset of the experience.
Reagent Testing
Loading reagent data
Expected colorimetric results are being prepared.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Amphetamine exerts its primary pharmacological effects by promoting the release of dopamine and norepinephrine from presynaptic nerve terminals.2 It enters neurons via monoamine transporters (DAT, NET, and to a lesser extent SERT), where it acts as a competitive substrate that inhibits monoamine reuptake. Once inside the terminal, amphetamine displaces monoamines from vesicular storage by interacting with VMAT2, collapsing the vesicular pH gradient and expanding the cytosolic monoamine pool available for reverse transport.3 Amphetamine is also a potent full agonist at trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1),4 activation of which triggers intracellular kinase cascades (PKA, PKC, CaMKIIα) that phosphorylate monoamine transporters, further promoting neurotransmitter efflux into the synapse.56 At very high doses, amphetamine weakly inhibits monoamine oxidase.7 It also inhibits the neuronal glutamate transporter EAAT3 (SLC1A1), reducing glutamate clearance and potentiating excitatory neurotransmission.8 The only known post-synaptic receptor at which amphetamine binds in humans is the 5-HT1A receptor, where it acts as an agonist with low micromolar affinity.
Pharmacokinetics
Amphetamine is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, with oral bioavailability typically around 90%.9 Absorption is favored in more basic intestinal environments, where the drug exists in a more lipid-soluble form. Peak plasma concentrations are reached approximately 1 to 3 hours after oral administration.10 Roughly 20% of circulating amphetamine is bound to plasma proteins,9 and the drug distributes readily into most tissues including brain and cerebrospinal fluid. Amphetamine is metabolized hepatically, primarily by CYP2D6,10 along with dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH), flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 (FMO3), butyrate-CoA ligase (XM-ligase), and glycine N-acyltransferase (GLYAT). The major metabolic pathways include aromatic hydroxylation, aliphatic hydroxylation, and N-dealkylation, though a significant portion of the drug is excreted unchanged. Elimination half-life varies by enantiomer and is strongly influenced by urinary pH: at normal urine pH, the d-enantiomer has a half-life of approximately 9 to 11 hours and the l-enantiomer 11 to 14 hours,10 with highly acidic urine reducing these to around 7 hours and highly alkaline urine extending them up to 34 hours.10 Approximately 90% of an ingested dose is eliminated within 3 days.
Dangerous
Highest riskThese combinations are considered extremely harmful and should always be avoided. Reactions to these drugs taken in combination are highly unpredictable and have a potential to cause death.
Unsafe
AvoidThere is considerable risk of physical harm when taking these combinations, they should be avoided where possible.
Caution
Use cautionThese combinations are not usually physically harmful, but may produce undesirable effects, such as physical discomfort or overstimulation. Extreme use may cause physical health issues. Synergistic effects may be unpredictable. Care should be taken when choosing to use this combination.
Tolerance
Full Tolerance
Prolonged repeated amphetamine use can reduce responsiveness to many effects, often rapidly when chronic high doses are involved. As tolerance rises, larger doses may be needed for comparable effects. Outside medical settings, tolerance usually develops quickly and can reduce many beneficial effects. Different effects may also show tolerance on different timelines.
Baseline Reset
1-2 weeks
Half Tolerance
3-7 days
Cross Tolerance
Dopaminergic stimulants
Harm Potential
Addiction & Dependence
Psychological
HighAmphetamine has high abuse potential and can cause psychological dependence with chronic use. Addiction is a serious risk with heavy recreational use but is unlikely to arise from typical medical use at therapeutic doses. Cravings and withdrawal effects occur if use is suddenly discontinued.11
Physical
ModerateTolerance develops rapidly with recreational use, requiring increasingly larger doses. Withdrawal symptoms occur in roughly 88% of chronic high-dose users, persisting for 3-4 weeks with a marked crash phase during the first week.11 Symptoms include fatigue, depression, anxiety, irritability, intense hunger, disturbed sleep, and drug craving.11
Toxicity
Cardiovascular
Cardiovascular effects including hypertension, tachycardia, and arrhythmias occur during intoxication; severe hypertensive crises, heart attacks, and circulatory collapse are primarily associated with high doses or pre-existing cardiovascular conditions.12
Central Nervous System
No evidence of direct neurotoxicity in humans at typical doses; however, high-dose exposure may cause indirect neurotoxicity, particularly when hyperpyrexia occurs. Prolonged heavy use can lead to speech and thought disturbances.
Renal
Kidney damage is primarily associated with rhabdomyolysis from high-dose use, particularly when hyperthermia occurs; acute renal failure has been reported in overdose and fatality cases.12
Hepatic
Hepatic injury has been reported in overdose contexts; liver damage and failure are possible with chronic high-dose use.15
Dental and Oral
Long-term use is associated with dental caries, tooth loss, and gingivitis; jaw tension causes bruxism leading to permanent tooth wear and cracking.16
Psychosis Risk
Stimulant psychosis can occur with severe overdose or chronic heavy use, presenting with paranoia, hallucinations, delusions, and bizarre or violent behavior.1718 Symptoms usually disappear within weeks after cessation, but approximately 5-15% of users fail to recover completely.17 Psychosis rarely arises from therapeutic use. Risk increases with multi-day use, sleep deprivation, and high doses.
Seizure Risk
Amphetamine reduces seizure threshold and convulsions can occur at high doses.12 Fatal poisoning is usually preceded by convulsions and coma.19 Seizures are rare at typical doses but represent a serious risk in overdose situations.
History & Culture
Discovery and Early Synthesis
Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 by Romanian chemist Lazăr Edeleanu while working in Germany. Edeleanu originally named the compound phenylisopropylamine, though its central nervous system effects remained entirely unknown for the next four decades. The substance's stimulant properties…
Legality
International
UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1971: scheduled
By Country
United StatesPrescription onlySchedule II
Controlled under the Controlled Substances Act.92 Classified as having high abuse potential with accepted medical use. Illegal to sell without DEA licensure and illegal to possess without a valid prescription.
By state
Across the 50 states, D.C., and the permanent territories, most jurisdictions treat amphetamine consistently with federal law, though a number of states impose their own controls or classifications that diverge from the federal position.
KansasRestrictedSchedule II
Puerto RicoPrescription onlyClasificación III controlled substance
AustriaPrescription onlyAnhang II
Prohibited under the Suchtmittelgesetz (Narcotic Substances Act). Possession, production, and sale are illegal without authorization.
BrazilPrescription onlyLista A3
Classified as a psychoactive substance requiring a prescription for purchase and a license to sell.
ChinaPrescription onlyClass I
NMPA, MPS and NHC Announcement No. 55 (2025), Pharmaceutical Psychotropic Drugs Catalogue (2025)3435363738
Amphetamine (苯丙胺; Amfetamine; CAS 300-62-9) is a Class I pharmaceutical psychotropic drug under the 2025 Catalogue, which took effect upon publication in July 2025. Class I psychotropic drugs may not be sold at retail; supply is confined to designated wholesalers and approved medical institutions, and only physicians holding Class I prescribing qualifications may prescribe them. The Catalogue covers possible salts, single-ingredient preparations, and stereoisomers unless otherwise specified. The July 2026 adjustment adds three other substances and does not alter amphetamine’s classification.
FinlandIllegalList II
Controlled under the Finnish Narcotics Act. Possession, purchase, sale, and manufacture are illegal.
GermanyPrescription onlyAnlage III
Added to the Opiumgesetz (Opium Act) in 1941 and reformed under the Betäubungsmittelgesetz (Narcotics Act) in 1981. Can only be prescribed using a special narcotic prescription form.
IrelandPrescription onlySchedule 2
Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2017 (S.I. No. 173/2017)51
Ireland lists amphetamine in Schedule 2 of the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2017, including its stereoisomers, salts and preparations. Production, supply, import and export are generally prohibited, while practitioners and pharmacists have defined professional exemptions for Schedule 2 drugs.
JapanIllegalStimulant
Amphetamine is banned even for medical use, making it unavailable for any therapeutic purpose within the country.
MexicoPrescription onlyGroup II
Ley General de Salud, Article 24556
Mexico lists amphetamine in Group II of Article 245 of the Ley General de Salud. Group II substances have therapeutic value but constitute a serious public-health problem and are subject to the controlled-substances provisions of Chapter V.
New ZealandClass B1Citation needed
Reclassified from Class B2 to the more restrictive Class B1 controlled substance category on August 2, 2005.
PhilippinesRestrictedSchedule II
The Philippines lists amfetamine, also named amphetamine, in Schedule II under Republic Act No. 9165. The statute regulates listed drugs as dangerous drugs and criminalises unauthorised sale, delivery, distribution, transport, manufacture, and possession.
PortugalDecriminalizedTable II-B
Amphetamine is listed in Table II-B, which also covers its derivatives, salts, and preparations. Since 1 July 2001, consumption, acquisition, and possession for personal use are administrative offences rather than crimes. Possession exceeding a 10-day average-consumption quantity is only an indication of a possible non-personal purpose; if exclusive personal use is established, the case is dismissed, no indictment is issued, or the person is acquitted and referred to a deterrence commission. Unauthorized production, sale, transfer, import, export, transport, or possession outside that personal-use regime remains a trafficking offence punishable by 4 to 12 years' imprisonment.
South AfricaRestrictedSchedule 8
Medicines and Related Substances Act: Schedules70
South Africa lists amphetamine and its salts, including preparations, in Schedule 8 of the medicines schedules. The Schedule also extends control to relevant isomers, esters, ethers, salts, preparations and mixtures unless expressly excluded or listed elsewhere.
SpainPrescription onlyList II
Real Decreto 2829/1977, de 6 de octubre76
Spain places amphetamine in List II of Annex 1 to Real Decreto 2829/1977. Pharmacies may dispense preparations containing List II substances only on a medical prescription, and import or export requires prior authorization from the Directorate-General for Pharmaceutical Regulation.
SwitzerlandPrescription onlyVerzeichnis A
Specifically named as a controlled substance under Schedule A of Swiss drug legislation. Medicinal use is permitted with appropriate authorization.
UkraineRestrictedTable II List 2
Cabinet of Ministers Resolution No. 770 of 6 May 200084
Ukraine places amphetamine in Table II, List 2 of its national list of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors. List 2 is the category for psychotropic substances whose circulation is restricted.
United KingdomPrescription onlyClass B Schedule 2
AustraliaSchedule 8Citation needed
Controlled substance under national scheduling. Personal quantities under 1.5 grams were decriminalized in the Australian Capital Territory as of October 28, 2023.22
BelgiumPrescription onlyAnnex IIB
Belgium lists amphetamine in Annex IIB to the Royal Decree of 6 September 2017, covering 1971 Convention Schedule II substances and other internationally controlled psychotropics. Medicines containing an Annex II substance may be supplied to the public only on a signed and dated medical prescription with the required particulars.
CanadaPrescription onlySchedule I
Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, Schedule I item 19; Food and Drug Regulations, Part G §G.04.00130313233
Since 6 November 2012, amphetamine has been listed in Schedule I, item 19 of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. Unauthorized possession, trafficking, production, importation, and exportation are prohibited. The Food and Drug Regulations define amphetamine and its salts as designated controlled drugs and regulate their prescribing, sale, and provision by authorized practitioners and pharmacists.
DenmarkPrescription onlyList B
Denmark lists amphetamine as item 49 of List B to Executive Order No. 405 of 2026 on euphoriant substances. List B substances may be used only for medical or scientific purposes, and medical dispensing is reserved to authorised pharmacies and health professionals under the Order.
FrancePrescription onlyAnnexe III
Arrêté du 22 février 1990 fixant la liste des substances classées comme stupéfiants, art. 1 et annexe III; Code de la santé publique, art. R. 5132-294344454647
Amphetamine is classified as a narcotic (stupéfiant) in Annex III of the 22 February 1990 Order, which has been in force since 8 June 1990. The Annex covers its preparations except the specifically named tablet preparation containing 5 mg amphetamine sulfate and 100 mg phenobarbital per tablet. Prescription and dispensing are prohibited unless the narcotic is contained in a pharmaceutical specialty or preparation and subject to the narcotics-prescription rules. Unlawful production or manufacture is punishable by 20 years’ imprisonment and a €7.5 million fine; unlawful transport, possession, offering, supply, or acquisition is punishable by 10 years’ imprisonment and a €7.5 million fine.
IndiaRestrictedPsychotropic substance
Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 198550
India lists amphetamine as a psychotropic substance in the Schedule to the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985. The Act prohibits manufacture, possession, sale, purchase, transport, use, consumption, import, export and transhipment except for medical or scientific purposes and subject to any required licence, permit or authorization.
IsraelProhibitedCitation needed
Banned in July 2010 as part of legislation targeting amphetamines and their derivatives. The rules were designed to preemptively prohibit new substances before they reach the market.
LuxembourgIllegalStupéfiant
Law of 19 February 1973 concerning the sale of medicinal substances and the fight against drug addiction5455
Recreational use is prohibited under national drug legislation.
NetherlandsRestrictedList I
Opium Act57
Controlled under the Opium Act as a List I substance.58 Possession, distribution, and production without authorization are illegal.
NorwayPrescription onlyP II
Narkotikaforskriften (Forskrift om narkotika)59
Controlled substance under Norwegian drug legislation. Purchase and possession without a valid prescription are prohibited.
PolandPrescription onlyGroup II-P
Regulation of the Minister of Health on the list of psychotropic substances, narcotic drugs and new psychoactive substances6263
Listed in Appendix II-P of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Law. Buying, selling, possessing, and using without authorization are criminal offenses.
SingaporeIllegalClass A drug
Singapore lists amphetamine as a Class A controlled drug in the First Schedule to the Misuse of Drugs Act 1973. The Act criminalises possession, consumption, trafficking, manufacture, and import or export of controlled drugs except where authorised under the statutory regime.
South KoreaPrescription onlyAnnex 4
Amphetamine is listed in Annex 4 as a psychotropic drug under Article 2(3)(b), the category for drugs with a high risk of misuse, very limited medical use, and potential for severe physical or psychological dependence. This designation covers amphetamine, its salts, isomers, and salts of isomers. Unauthorised persons may not possess, use, manufacture, import, export, supply, or prescribe it; lawful medical administration is subject to the Narcotics Control Act's regulated handler and prescription rules. Annex 4 was last amended on 12 August 2025 and remains in the Enforcement Decree in force from 1 February 2026.
SwedenPrescription onlyFörteckning II
Läkemedelsverkets föreskrifter LVFS 2011:10 om förteckningar över narkotika77
Classified as a controlled drug and included in List II under Swedish law, corresponding to List P II of the 1971 Psychotropic Convention.
ThailandIllegalCategory I
Notification of the Ministry of Public Health, Specifying Names of Category 1 Narcotics, B.E. 2565 (2022), as amended through No. 5, B.E. 2568 (2025)80818283
Amphetamine is listed as a Category I narcotic under Thailand’s Narcotics Code. The current listing, effective 24 November 2022, identifies amphetamine by name and chemical name; later Category I amendments have not rescheduled it. Unauthorized production, import, export, sale, or possession of a Category I narcotic is prohibited, and use is separately punishable.
United Arab EmiratesPrescription onlyPsychotropic Schedule II
The United Arab Emirates lists amphetamine in the psychotropic schedules attached to Federal Decree-Law No. 30 of 2021, including stereoisomers, derivatives, metabolites, salts and preparations. The Ministry of Health and Prevention classifies amfetamine as Psychotropic Schedule II for traveller controls and requires a medical prescription or attested medical report for permitted personal quantities.
References
Source Pages
Citations
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