Cannabis
Cannabis is a genus of flowering plant that has been used for thousands of years for medicinal, spiritual, and recreational purposes.1 Its primary psychoactive constituent is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), though dozens of additional cannabinoids and terpenes contribute to its overall effects. It ranks among the most widely consumed recreational substances globally, behind only alcohol, caffeine, and tobacco. Its two principal species, sativa and indica, are recognized for producing distinct effect profiles.
Contents
Dosage & Duration
Dosage
Doses are expressed as milligrams of THC content. Oral use takes longer to take effect than smoking but lasts longer; effects from large oral doses can persist for an extended period.
Duration
Subjective Effects
When used in combination with psychedelics, cannabis is capable of intensifying and extending the duration of both the visual and cognitive effects with extreme efficiency. This should be used with caution if one is not experienced with psychedelics. When used in combination with dissociatives, the geometry, euphoria, dissociation and hallucinatory effects are often greatly enhanced. When used in combination with alcohol, cannabis often creates feelings of extreme nausea, dizziness and changes in gravity. It is recommended that people smoke before drinking and not the other way around unless they are extremely cautious.
Physical
Cognitive
Visual
Enhancements
Geometry
Cannabis is capable of inconsistently inducing mild psychedelic geometry at extremely high doses within many users. Within many users who also regularly use psychedelics, however, it is capable of inducing these consistently in a visual style which seems to be an averaged out depiction of all the psychedelics one has used within the past. These rarely extend beyond level 4 and are considered to be mild, fine, small and zoomed out (but often well-defined).
Auditory
Multisensory
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Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
The principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis is Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), one of at least 84 cannabinoids found in the plant alongside other notable compounds such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), and cannabigerol (CBG). THC acts as an agonist at CB1 cannabinoid receptors,2 inhibiting the adenylate cyclase secondary messenger system in a dose-dependent manner and indirectly increasing dopamine release. THC also potentiates glycine receptor activity, while CBD acts as an allosteric modulator of the mu and delta opioid receptors. Activation of CB1 and CB2 receptors upregulates 5-HT2A receptor activity through the ERK1/ERK2 signaling pathway, though the exact biochemical mechanism underlying this effect is unknown.
Pharmacokinetics
THC undergoes hepatic metabolism, producing the psychoactive metabolite 11-hydroxy-THC.2 CYP2C9 genotype significantly influences THC clearance: individuals with the CYP2C9*3/*3 genotype exhibit approximately 3-fold higher blood THC concentrations compared to those with *1/*1, while heterozygous *1/*3 carriers show roughly 2-fold higher levels. The elimination half-life of CBD is approximately 9 hours.
Caution
Use cautionThese combinations are not usually physically harmful, but may produce undesirable effects, such as physical discomfort or overstimulation. Extreme use may cause physical health issues. Synergistic effects may be unpredictable. Care should be taken when choosing to use this combination.
Tolerance
All cannabinoids (THC, CBD, synthetic cannabinoids)
Harm Potential
Addiction & Dependence
Psychological
LowLow to moderate abuse potential with risk of psychological dependence in some individuals with chronic use.3 Studies estimate 5-10% of users may become daily users at some point, though most discontinue by age 30. Dependence rates are lower than both alcohol and nicotine.3
Physical
LowMild physical dependence can develop with regular daily use.4 Withdrawal symptoms include irritability, insomnia, sweating, loss of appetite, and restlessness,4 typically lasting 1-2 weeks but occasionally up to 6 weeks in heavy users.4 Symptoms are never life-threatening.
Toxicity
Chronic smoking may cause respiratory issues including coughing, bronchitis, increased throat and lung infections, and reduced lung capacity;5 however, well-designed epidemiological studies have not found increased risk of lung cancer or COPD from cannabis alone,5 with pulmonary risks far lower than tobacco smoking.5
Acute cardiovascular effects including increased heart rate and blood pressure changes occur during intoxication;6 a large study of 65,000 individuals found no increased mortality in users under 50, though those with pre-existing heart conditions may face elevated risk.
Regular use may cause cognitive effects including short-term memory impairment, reduced motivation, and difficulty learning;7 these effects are typically reversible with abstinence,7 and well-controlled studies have not found evidence of permanent IQ loss or brain structure changes from cannabis use.78
Psychosis Risk
Acute psychotic symptoms including paranoia, delusions, and anxiety can occur, particularly at high doses.9 Prolonged use may increase psychosis risk in predisposed individuals with family history of schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders.910 A 2011 FDA report found no clear causal linkage between cannabis use and psychotic disorders in otherwise healthy people, though associations have been documented between adolescent use and later psychotic diagnoses.10
History & Culture
Origins and Early History
Cannabis represents one of humanity's oldest cultivated plants, first domesticated approximately 12,000 years ago in East Asia during the early Neolithic period.11 Genetic and archaeological evidence suggests human use may extend even further back, possibly to the…
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Legality
International
1961 Single Convention: cannabis and cannabis resin remain in Schedule I.
1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances: THC-related substances are separately scheduled; this country-level cannabis record makes no additional normalized claim.
1988 Convention: cannabis is not listed in precursor Tables I or II.
By Country
References
Source Pages
Drug Users Bible by Dominic Milton Trott
DrugBank: Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol
Erowid- Erowid Cannabis Vault: Dosage
- Erowid Cannabis Vault: Effects
- Erowid: The LESS Method - Measured Approach to Oral Cannabis
NERVEWING
PsychonautWiki- PsychonautWiki: Cannabis/Summary
The Drug Classroom
TripSit Factsheets- TripSit Wiki
- TripSit Wiki: Drug Combinations
Wikipedia- Wikipedia: Cannabis sativa
- Wikipedia: Tetrahydrocannabinol
Citations
- Zeinab Breijyeh, Buthaina Jubeh, Sabino A Bufo, Rafik Karaman, & Laura Scrano. (2021). Cannabis: A Toxin-Producing Plant with Potential Therapeutic Uses. Toxins, 13(2), 117. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins130201171
- (2017). Cannabis. Substance Abuse: Clinical Issues in Intensive Outpatient Treatment. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK425762/12
- Compton WM, Valentino RJ, & DuPont RL. (2021). Cannabis use and cannabis use Disorder. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8655458/12
- Allsop DJ, Norberg MM, Copeland J, Fu S, & Budney AJ. (2012). Quantifying the Clinical Significance of Cannabis Withdrawal. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3458862/123
- Tashkin DP. (2013). Effects of Marijuana Smoking on the Lung. 10(3), 239-247. https://doi.org/10.1513/annalsats.201212-127fr123456
- (2024). Cannabis and Heart Health. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/cannabis/health-effects/heart-health.html1
- Weiland BJ, Thayer RE, Depue BE, Sabbineni A, Bryan AD, & Hutchison KE. (2015). Daily Marijuana Use Is Not Associated with Brain Morphometric Measures in Adolescents or Adults. 35(4), 1505-1512. https://www.jneurosci.org/content/35/4/15051234
- Jackson NJ, Isen JD, Khoddam R, Irons D, Tuvblad C, Iacono WG, McGue M, Raine A, & Baker LA. (2016). Impact of Adolescent Marijuana Use on Intelligence: Results from Two Longitudinal Twin Studies. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.151664811312
- Dearness T, & Pantelis C. (2014). Gone to Pot – A Review of the Association between Cannabis and Psychosis. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4033190/12
- Rubino T, & Parolaro D. (2010). Adolescent Cannabis Use and Psychosis: Epidemiology and Neurodevelopmental Models. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2931552/12
- (July 2021). Large-scale whole-genome resequencing unravels the domestication history of ''Cannabis sativa''. Science Advances, 7(29). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abg22861
- Herodotus. (440 BCE). Histories, Book IV — Herodotus (via LacusCurtius/University of Chicago). http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/4c*.html1
- (2008). Phytochemical and genetic analyses of ancient cannabis from Central Asia. Journal of Experimental Botany, 59(15), 4171–82. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/ern2601
- (n.d.). Cannabis — Etymology, Origin & Meaning. Online Etymology Dictionary (Etymonline). https://www.etymonline.com/word/cannabis1
- (n.d.). The Bhang Lassi Is How Hindus Drink Themselves High for Shiva. VICE / Munchies. https://www.vice.com/en/article/httpmunchies-vice-comarticlesthe-bhang-lassi-is-how-hindus-drink-themselves-high-for-shiva/1
- (2023-06-02). Why Rastafari smoke marijuana for sacramental reasons and the faith's other beliefs. Africanews (AP). https://www.africanews.com/2023/06/02/why-rastafari-smoke-marijuana-for-sacramental-reasons-and-the-faiths-other-beliefs/1
- McPartland JM. (2017). The Name of Cannabis: A Short Guide for Nonbotanists. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research. https://doi.org/10.1089/can.2016.003512
- (2006). Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years: Cannabinoid pharmacology. British Journal of Pharmacology, 147(S1), S163–S171. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.07064061
- (2023-02-09). Colonialism, class and crime: the racist roots of cannabis prohibition. Cannabis Health News. https://cannabishealthnews.co.uk/2023/02/09/colonialism-class-and-crime-the-racist-roots-of-cannabis-prohibition/1
- (n.d.). How Spain brought cannabis to the Americas and influenced Hispanic culture. Leafly. https://www.leafly.com/news/lifestyle/cannabis-in-hispanic-culture1
- (2009). Arriola, Sebastián Omar y otros s/ causa n° 9080 — Argentine Supreme Court Ruling. https://www.tni.org/en/countries/argentina/item/235-the-arriola-ruling-of-the-supreme-court-of-argentina1
- (2016). Narcotic Drugs Amendment Act 2016, No. 12, 2016 — Australia. https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016A000121
- (n.d.). Cannabis Act. laws.justice.gc.ca. https://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-24.5/index.html1
- (n.d.). Cannabisgesetz; Konsumcannabisgesetz. gesetze-im-internet.de. https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/kcang/1
- (n.d.). Laws & Penalties — Hong Kong Police Force (Dangerous Drugs Ordinance Cap. 134). https://www.police.gov.hk/ppp_en/04_crime_matters/drug/law_pen.html1
- (2015). Dangerous Drugs Act Facts — Jamaica Information Service (Dangerous Drugs Amendment Act 2015). https://jis.gov.jm/features/dangerous-drugs-act-facts/1
- (n.d.). About the Penalties for Drug Offenses in Japan — Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. https://www.mhlw.go.jp/content/11120000/001682850.pdf1
- (2009). Mexico: Law Allowing Personal Drug Use and Against Small-Scale Drug Trafficking — Library of Congress Global Legal Monitor, September 2009. https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2009-09-04/mexico-law-allowing-personal-drug-use-and-against-small-scale-drug-trafficking/1
- (n.d.). Opiumwet, List II. wetten.overheid.nl. https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001941/1
- (n.d.). Código Penal del Perú, Artículo 299 — personal possession thresholds. https://legalclarity.org/is-cannabis-legal-in-peru-medical-and-possession-laws/1
- (2000). Portugal Lei n.º 30/2000 — Drug Decriminalization Law. https://drugpolicy.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/dpa-drug-decriminalization-portugal-health-human-centered-approach_0.pdf1
- (n.d.). Singapore's anti-drug laws on Cannabis — Central Narcotics Bureau. https://www.cnb.gov.sg/singapore-drug-situation/myths-and-facts-about-drugs/cannabis/singapore-s-anti-drug-laws-on-cannabis/1
- (n.d.). Addiction and health: Cannabis — Swiss Federal Office of Public Health (FOPH / BAG). https://www.bag.admin.ch/en/addiction-and-health-cannabis1
- (n.d.). Misuse of Drugs Act 1971; Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001. gov.uk. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/controlled-drugs-list--2/list-of-most-commonly-encountered-drugs-currently-controlled-under-the-misuse-of-drugs-legislation1
- (n.d.). 21 U.S. Code § 812 — Schedules of controlled substances (Controlled Substances Act). https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/21/8121
- (2018). Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 (2018 Farm Bill) — hemp provisions. https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/HempExecSumandLegalOpinion.pdf1
- (2013). Uruguay Law 19.172 — Cannabis Legalization, December 2013. https://centreforpublicimpact.org/public-impact-fundamentals/marijuana-legalisation-in-uruguay/1
Further Reading
HempGeneration: THCA Decarboxylation Temperatures
NCBI PMC: Cannabis & Alcohol Impairment Study- NCBI PMC: Cannabis Pharmacokinetics Review
- NCBI PMC: Drug Interactions with Cannabinoids
- NCBI PMC: Pharmacokinetics of THC & 11-OH-THC
- NCBI PMC: Tolerance to High-Dose Oral THC
- NIDA: Cannabis Research & Facts
The Psychedelic Society: Cannabis Harm Reduction
WHO ECDD: Cannabinoid Critical Review (2018)
Automated synthesisInformation aggregated and synthesized using an autonomous workflow built by Josie Kins.
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