Modafinil
Provigil, Alertec, Modavigil, Modiodal, Modalert
Modafinil is a benzhydryl-class eugeroic stimulant first developed in France in the late 1970s by neurophysiologist Michel Jouvet and Lafon Laboratories. It is the main metabolite of adrafinil1, with U.S. medical approval granted in 19982. It is prescribed for narcolepsy, sleep apnea, and shift work disorder2, and is also commonly used off-label as a cognitive enhancer because its stimulant profile is relatively subtle compared with traditional stimulants3.
Contents
Dosage & Duration
Dosage
Threshold~50 mg
Light50-100 mg
Moderate100-200 mg
Strong200-300 mg
Heavy300+ mg
Bioavailability
~100%
Duration
Onset60-120 minutes
Peak2-4 hours
Offset4-8 hours
After Effects1-12 hours
Total10-15 hours
Half-life
10-12 hours
Subjective Effects
Effects vary widely by individual, dose, and context.
Physical
The physical effects of modafinil can be broken down into several components.
Cognitive
The cognitive effects of modafinil can be broken down into several components.
Reagent Testing
Loading reagent data
Expected colorimetric results are being prepared.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
The precise mechanism of action of modafinil is not fully understood.2 Its most clearly established pharmacological action is inhibition of the dopamine transporter (DAT), which increases extracellular dopamine concentrations.24 Modafinil also acts as a partial agonist at alpha-1B adrenergic receptors and appears to promote orexin (hypocretin) signaling, activate glutamatergic circuits, and inhibit GABAergic activity.56 Elevated concentrations of norepinephrine, serotonin, and histamine have been observed following administration, with some evidence suggesting these increases are secondary to modafinil's dopaminergic and orexinergic actions rather than direct transporter interactions.74
Pharmacokinetics
Modafinil has an oral bioavailability of approximately 100% and reaches peak plasma concentrations within 2 to 3 hours of administration.2 It is metabolized primarily in the liver, with inactive metabolites excreted renally.28 Modafinil is a weak to moderate inducer of CYP3A4 and a weak inhibitor of CYP2C19, and may also induce CYP1A2 and CYP2B6 as well as inhibit CYP2C9.28 It may additionally induce P-glycoprotein. Elimination half-life is generally reported as 10 to 12 hours, though one source cites a broader range of 15 to 60 hours.8 Individual variation is influenced by sex, cytochrome P450 genotype, and liver and kidney function.
Metabolitesnone documented yet
Dangerous
Highest riskThese combinations are considered extremely harmful and should always be avoided. Reactions to these drugs taken in combination are highly unpredictable and have a potential to cause death.
Caution
Use cautionThese combinations are not usually physically harmful, but may produce undesirable effects, such as physical discomfort or overstimulation. Extreme use may cause physical health issues. Synergistic effects may be unpredictable. Care should be taken when choosing to use this combination.
Tolerance
Full Tolerance
Many modafinil effects may become less pronounced after prolonged repeated use, leading some users to require larger doses for similar results.
Baseline Reset
1-2 weeks
Half Tolerance
3-7 days
Cross Tolerance
Benzhydryl nootropics (armodafinil, adrafinil), Other eugeroic compounds
Harm Potential
Addiction & Dependence
Psychological
LowModafinil exhibits a low propensity for abuse compared to classical stimulants, as it lacks significantly expressed pleasurable or euphoric effects.2 However, emerging evidence suggests it works at similar neurobiological mechanisms as other addictive stimulants,910 warranting some caution.
Physical
LowThe dependence liability of modafinil is considered low.2 However, due to its effects on dopamine balance,9 there is some potential for physical dependence with regular use, particularly when consumed for performance enhancement purposes with the intention of functioning on reduced sleep.
Toxicity
Cardiovascular
Hepatic
Integumentary
Rare but serious cutaneous adverse reactions including Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, and DRESS syndrome have been reported;2 these are uncommon immune-mediated reactions rather than dose-dependent toxicity.
Psychosis Risk
Psychiatric symptoms including psychosis, mania, hallucinations, and delusions may occur, primarily in overdose situations.2 These reactions have been reported in individuals both with and without preexisting psychiatric history and may persist after discontinuation of the drug.2
Seizure Risk
Seizures are a rare neurological complication that may arise primarily in overdose situations. The risk may be elevated when modafinil is combined with substances that lower the seizure threshold.
History & Culture
Legality
International
Not internationally scheduled under the 1961, 1971, or 1988 conventions.
By Country
AustraliaPrescription onlySchedule 4
Therapeutic Goods (Poisons Standard—June 2026) Instrument 202624
The current Poisons Standard lists MODAFINIL in Schedule 4, which is titled ‘Prescription only medicines and prescription animal remedies.’ The instrument commenced on 1 June 2026 and states that Schedule 4 substances should be available from a pharmacist on prescription; it directs readers to relevant State or Territory authorities for legal definitions.
BelgiumPrescription onlyPrescription médicale
Provigil 100 mg patient information leaflet25
Provigil, containing modafinil, is a medicine subject to medical prescription in Belgium. It is authorised and marketed in Belgium for the treatment of excessive sleepiness due to narcolepsy in adults.
CanadaPrescription onlyPRESCRIPTION
Food and Drug Regulations27
Health Canada's Drug Product Database identifies Canadian products containing modafinil as prescription products. Under the Food and Drug Regulations, a prescription drug may be sold only by a person entitled under provincial law to dispense it and pursuant to a verbal or written prescription, except as provided by section C.01.043.
ChinaRestricted非特定刺激剂
2026 Doping Catalogue29
China's 2026 Doping Catalogue lists modafinil as a non-specified stimulant. Stimulants, including modafinil, are prohibited in competition under China's anti-doping system; the Catalogue took effect on 1 January 2026.
DenmarkPrescription onlyB
Bekendtgørelse om recepter og dosisdispensering af lægemidler31
Danish Medicines Agency medicine-price records list modafinil products in delivery group B. Under the Prescription Order, group B medicines are dispensed only on prescription, with repeat dispensing governed by the prescriber's directions.
FrancePrescription onlyListe I
Arrêté du 9 septembre 1992 portant inscription sur la liste I des substances vénéneuses34
Available by prescription since 1994 under the brand name Modiodal. Subject to EMA recommendations limiting use to excessive sleepiness associated with narcolepsy.33
IrelandPrescription onlyPrescription-only
HPRA authorised-medicines record for Provigil 100 mg tablets37
Provigil 100 mg tablets, containing modafinil, are authorised and marketed in Ireland as a prescription-only medicinal product. Supply is therefore through the prescription-medicine system.
JapanRestricted第一種向精神薬
PMDA package insert for Modiodal Tablets 100 mg39
Modiodal Tablets 100 mg, containing modafinil, are classified by Japan's Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency as a first-class psychotropic medicine and a prescription medicine. The official package insert states that the product is to be used on the prescription of a physician or other qualified prescriber.
NetherlandsPrescription onlyUR
Geneesmiddeleninformatiebank record for Modafinil Mylan 100 mg41
Modafinil Mylan 100 mg is recorded in the Netherlands Medicines Information Bank with the UR supply classification. UR medicines are supplied only on prescription.
NorwayPrescription onlyReseptgruppe B
Norwegian Medicines Agency Legemiddelsøk record for Modiodal43
Modiodal, containing modafinil, is listed in the Norwegian Medicines Agency medicines database as prescription-only and in prescription group B. Dispensing is subject to the prescription controls applicable to that group.
RussiaRestrictedList II
Government Resolution No. 681 of 30 June 199845
Modafinil is listed in List II of the Russian Federation’s list of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances whose circulation is restricted. Its circulation is subject to the controls that apply to List II substances.
SingaporeRestrictedUnregistered
Health Products Act 2007, section 1546
Modafinil is not registered in Singapore. Section 15 of the Health Products Act prohibits supplying an unregistered health product, while HSA says supply or sale of modafinil is an offence unless HSA authorises a doctor’s special-circumstances use for patients under that doctor’s care; the available HSA material does not state a general possession offence.
SpainPrescription onlyPrescription medicine
AEMPS CIMA marketing-authorisation records for modafinil products48
AEMPS's current CIMA records identify multiple modafinil products, including Modafinilo Aristo 100 mg comprimidos EFG, as medicines subject to medical prescription. The records identify modafinilo as the active substance and mark the products as requiring a prescription; this finding is limited to the dispensing classification recorded for authorised modafinil medicines.
SwitzerlandPrescription onlyPrescription
Swissmedic medicines information for Modasomil50
Modasomil, which contains modafinil, is dispensed in Swiss pharmacies only on a physician's prescription valid for a single supply. The Swissmedic-approved patient information identifies modafinil as its active ingredient and limits its use to treatment prescribed by a physician.
United KingdomPrescription onlyPOM
Human Medicines Regulations 201251
Modafinil is a prescription-only medicine in the United Kingdom and is licensed only for the treatment of narcolepsy. Under the Human Medicines Regulations 2012, a prescription-only medicine may be sold or supplied only in accordance with a prescription from an appropriate practitioner.
ArgentinaRegulated
Officially regulated as a prescription medicine. Reports suggest pharmacies may sell without prescription due to limited familiarity with regulations.
AustriaNR (Prescription Only)Citation needed
Classified as prescription-only with repeated dispense prohibited. Requires a new prescription for each dispensing.
BrazilPrescription onlyLista B1
Portaria SVS/MS nº 344/1998, current consolidated text (Anexo I, Lista B1)26
ANVISA's current consolidated text of Portaria SVS/MS nº 344/1998 lists modafinila at item 65 of Lista B1, the list of psychotropic substances subject to Notificação de Receita B. The consolidated instrument requires that notification for dispensing medicines containing Lista B1 substances and gives it a 30-day nationwide validity, so modafinil is prescription-only under Brazil's special-control regime.
ChilePrescription onlyReceta Retenida
Instituto de Salud Pública de Chile, Fichas de Productos Registrados F-25466/20 and F-15727/2128
Modafinilo is authorised in Chile as MODAVITAE and MOVIGIL, registered pharmaceutical products whose ISP records state the sale condition "Receta Retenida". Supply is therefore restricted to the retained-prescription medicines regime recorded for those products.
Czech RepublicPrescription onlyR
SÚKL Database of Medicinal Products (DLP)30
The State Institute for Drug Control's Database of Medicinal Products identifies ASPENDOS and VIGIL as registered products containing modafinil and classifies their dispensing regime as R (on medical prescription). Modafinil products are therefore supplied on medical prescription in the Czech Republic.
FinlandLegal (regulated)Liite 1
Lääkealan turvallisuus- ja kehittämiskeskuksen päätös lääkeluettelosta (230/2025)32
Not classified as a controlled substance but regulated as a prescription drug. As of February 2011, pharmacies do not typically stock modafinil and the European Medicines Agency recommends restricting its use to narcolepsy treatment only.33
ItalyPrescription onlyRRL
AIFA Banca Dati Farmaci record for Provigil38
Available by prescription under the brand name Provigil.
MexicoNot scheduled
Ley General de Salud, Article 24540
Modafinil is not included among the psychotropic substance groups in Article 245 of Mexico's General Health Law. It is therefore not scheduled as a psychotropic substance under that provision.
New ZealandPrescription onlySchedule 1
Medicines Regulations 198442
Classified as a prescription medicine under the Medicines Act 1981. Sold under the brand name Modavigil. The Act prohibits importing, procuring, receiving, storing, using, or possessing any prescription medicine without reasonable excuse.
RomaniaRestrictedTable II
Law No. 339/2005 on narcotic and psychotropic plants, substances and preparations44
Modafinil is listed in Table II to Law No. 339/2005, Romania's national list of psychotropic substances under control. Activities involving listed psychotropic substances are subject to the law's authorization regime.
Russian FederationSchedule II
Listed in Schedule II of controlled substances. Banned for personal possession, sale, and from most medical use.
South KoreaPrescription only전문의약품
MFDS Drug Safety Korea authorised-medicines record for Modanil Tablet 200 mg47
The Ministry of Food and Drug Safety records Modanil Tablet 200 mg, containing modafinil, as an active prescription medicine in South Korea. Its supply is subject to the prescription-medicine classification.
SwedenRestrictedSchedule IV
Läkemedelsverkets förteckning över narkotika49
Classified as a Schedule 4 drug. Prescribed for narcolepsy and hypersomnia. Sold under the brand name Modiodal in 100mg tablets.
TurkeyUncontrolled
Available without prescription from pharmacies. Not classified as a controlled substance.
References
Source Pages
Citations
- Alice Ameline, Laurie Gheddar, Jean-Sébastien Raul, & Pascal Kintz. (2020). Identification of Adrafinil and its Main Metabolite Modafinil in Human Hair. Self-Administration Study and Interpretation of an Authentic Case. Forensic Sciences Research, 5(4), 322–326. https://academic.oup.com/fsr/article/5/4/322/67946351
- (n.d.). Provigil- modafinil tablet. DailyMed. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e16c26ad-7bc2-d155-3a5d-da83ad6492c81234567891011121314151617181920
- Michel Billiard, & Roger Broughton. (2018). Modafinil: its discovery, the early European and North American experience in the treatment of narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnia, and its subsequent use in other medical conditions. Sleep Medicine, 49, 69–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2018.05.0271
- (2024). Pharmacological Advances in Central Nervous System Stimulants. 99, 287–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.apha.2023.10.00612
- (2020). A review on modafinil: the characteristics, function, and use in critical care. Journal of Drug Assessment, 9(1), 82–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/21556660.2020.17452091
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- (February 2022). StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30285371/1
- (n.d.). Taken together, these actions, including weak DAT inhibition combined with secondary catecholaminergic, orexinergic, glutamatergic, and GABAergic modulation, are thought to underli. https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200342020-00002123
- Volkow ND, Fowler JS, & Logan J. (2009). Effects of modafinil on dopamine and dopamine transporters in the male human brain: clinical implications. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19293415/12
- Murillo-Rodriguez E, Barciela Veras A, & Barbosa Rocha N. (2013). The neurobiology of modafinil as an enhancer of cognitive performance and a potential treatment for substance use disorders. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23934211/1
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- European Medicines Agency. (July 22, 2010). European Medicines Agency recommends restricting the use of modafinil. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/european-medicines-agency-recommends-restricting-use-modafinil12
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Further Reading
Automated synthesisInformation aggregated and synthesized using an autonomous workflow built by Josie Kins.
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