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Kratom
Mitragyna speciosa
Ketum, Biak, Biak-Biak, Thang, Kakuam
Kratom is a tropical plant (Mitragyna speciosa) native to Thailand and Southeast Asia, where its leaves have been used as a traditional medicine for centuries.1 Botanically related to coffee, it contains the indole alkaloids mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine.1 Kratom produces dose-dependent effects, acting as a stimulant at lower doses and producing opioid-like depressant effects at higher doses.1 It is considered habit-forming.2 Multiple strains exist, typically distinguished by vein color and region of origin.citation needed
Dosage & Duration
Dosage
Doses are population estimates that vary widely between individuals.
Threshold~0.5 g
Light0.5-1.5 g
Moderate1.5-3 g
Strong3-6 g
Heavy6+ g
These ranges apply to plain leaf material only. Alkaloid content can vary substantially between different batches and botanical sources, making precise dosing difficult. Individual sensitivity also varies widely, with some users experiencing paradoxically stronger effects at lower doses. Given this variability between batches and individual responses, these figures should be treated as approximate guidelines rather than exact recommendations.
Duration
Onset10-40 minutes
Come Up20-60 minutes
Peak1-2 hours
Offset1-2 hours
After Effects1-12 hours
Total2-5 hours
Subjective Effects
Legacy content. A statistically backed ontology from Mindstate Design Labs is coming soon.
Effects vary widely by individual, dose, and context.
Physical
The physical effects of kratom can be broken down into several components which progressively intensify proportional to dosage.
Cognitive
The cognitive effects of kratom can be broken down into several components which progressively intensify proportional to dosage.
Visual
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Kratom's pharmacological activity is primarily driven by two indole alkaloids, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, both of which act as partial agonists at μ-opioid receptorscitation needed, with 7-hydroxymitragynine showing the higher affinity. While most data indicates agonist activity across all three classical opioid receptor subtypes, some findings suggest antagonism at the δ-opioid receptor and only low affinity for the κ-opioid receptor. Both compounds display functional selectivity, notably lacking β-arrestin pathway recruitment. Mitragynine additionally stimulates α2-adrenergic receptors (reducing norepinephrine release), interacts with several serotonin, dopamine, and adenosine receptor subtypes, inhibits COX-2, and blocks voltage-gated calcium channels. Kratom contains at least 54 alkaloids in total3, including rhynchophylline (a non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist)citation needed, which may contribute synergistically to the plant's overall pharmacological profile.
Pharmacokinetics
Both mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine readily cross the blood-brain barriercitation needed. Mitragynine undergoes hepatic metabolism via both phase I and phase II pathways, with resulting metabolites excreted in urine. In vitro studies indicate that kratom extracts inhibit CYP3A4, CYP2D6, and CYP1A2, suggesting significant potential for drug interactions.
Metabolitesnone documented yet
Dangerous
Highest riskThese combinations are considered extremely harmful and should always be avoided. Reactions to these drugs taken in combination are highly unpredictable and have a potential to cause death.
Unsafe
AvoidThere is considerable risk of physical harm when taking these combinations, they should be avoided where possible.
Caution
Use cautionThese combinations are not usually physically harmful, but may produce undesirable effects, such as physical discomfort or overstimulation. Extreme use may cause physical health issues. Synergistic effects may be unpredictable. Care should be taken when choosing to use this combination.
Tolerance
Tolerance timelines are rules of thumb, not exact schedules, and vary widely between individuals and use patterns.
Cross Tolerance
Morphine and other μ-opioid receptor agonists (preclinical evidence; bidirectional cross-tolerance shown in mice treated with isolated 7-hydroxymitragynine; the human magnitude and the applicability to plain leaf are unknown)citation needed
Harm Potential
Addiction & Dependence
Psychological
ModerateKratom has a known addiction liability with approximately 25.5% of regular users meeting criteria for substance use disorder.citation needed Dependence may develop relatively quickly in vulnerable individuals, with tolerance often noted within weeks to months. Relapse risk is high, reported at 78-89% at three months post-cessation.
Physical
ModeratePhysical dependence develops with regular use, producing withdrawal symptoms including irritability, diarrhea, muscle and bone pain, insomnia, decreased appetite, restlessness, fever, and low motivation.citation needed While often reported as less severe than traditional opioid withdrawal,4 kratom withdrawal can still be significant, and severe cases may warrant treatment approaches similar to opioid addiction.5
Toxicity
Hepatic
Kratom use is associated with acute liver injury in some users, presenting with abdominal discomfort, dark urine, pruritus, and jaundice;citation needed however, many users do not develop liver injury, and risk factors remain unclear.
Musculoskeletal
Rhabdomyolysis has been reported as a rare but serious complication, primarily associated with high-dose use.citation needed
Cardiovascular
Elevated heart rate and blood pressure may occur during use; tachycardia was reported in approximately 17% of poison control exposures,citation needed though serious cardiac events are uncommon.
Psychosis Risk
Psychosis and hallucinations have been reported with frequent high-dose use, with hallucinations noted in approximately 4.8% of poison control cases.citation needed Kratom use has a small but statistically significant association with externalizing mental health disorders and may worsen existing conditions. It remains unclear whether kratom directly causes psychosis or unmasks pre-existing vulnerability.
Seizure Risk
Seizures were reported in approximately 6.1% of poison control center exposures.citation needed Risk appears primarily associated with frequent use of high doses or overdose situations. At typical recreational doses, seizure risk appears low.
History & Culture
Traditional Use in Southeast Asia
Kratom is indigenous to Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Papua New Guinea, where its leaves have been used in traditional herbal medicine since at least the nineteenth century.citation needed The plant has historically been consumed through chewing, smoking, and preparation…
Legality
International
Kratom, mitragynine, and 7-hydroxymitragynine do not appear in the schedules to the 1961 Single Convention, the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, or the 1988 Convention against Illicit Traffic. The WHO Expert Committee has reviewed kratom and recommended continued surveillance rather than international scheduling.
By Country
Illegal10
AustraliaIllegalPoisons Standard10
Australia lists mitragynine in Schedule 9 of the Poisons Standard. Schedule 9 substances are prohibited substances whose manufacture, possession, sale, or use is prohibited except for approved medical or scientific research.
IrelandIllegalMisuse of Drugs Regulations 201712
Ireland places mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine in Schedule 1 of the Misuse of Drugs Regulations. The Schedule 1 classification subjects the substances to the controls of the Misuse of Drugs framework.
New ZealandIllegalMisuse of Drugs Act 197513
New Zealand controls mitragynine as a Class C controlled drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act. Unauthorized possession, supply, importation, and manufacture of controlled drugs are offences under the Act.
NorwayIllegalForskrift om narkotika (FOR-2013-02-14-199)14
Kratom products containing mitragynine are controlled as narcotics under the Norwegian Narcotics Regulation, whose Narkotikalisten expressly lists mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. The regulation treats listed substances as narcotics; their possession, production, importation, and supply are subject to Norway's narcotic-drug controls.
PolandIllegalRegulation of the Minister of Health of 17 August 2018 on the list of psychotropic substances, narcotic drugs and new psychoactive substances (Dz.U. 2018 poz. 1591)1516
Since 21 August 2018, kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) has been listed as a Group I-N narcotic drug in the Regulation of the Minister of Health, including live plants, dried material, seeds and extracts. The same group separately lists mitragynine, kratom's principal alkaloid. Group I-N narcotic drugs may be used only for medical, industrial or research purposes; unauthorized possession is subject to forfeiture, and unlawful manufacture and trade are criminal offences.
RussiaIllegalGovernment Resolution of the Russian Federation No. 681 of 30 June 1998, On Approval of the List of Narcotic Drugs, Psychotropic Substances and Their Precursors Subject to Control in the Russian Federation1718
Kratom is prohibited in Russia because its principal alkaloid, mitragynine, is listed in List I of Government Resolution No. 681 of 30 June 1998. List I covers narcotic drugs whose circulation in the Russian Federation is prohibited; the listing therefore prohibits the circulation of mitragynine-containing kratom products.
SingaporeIllegalMisuse of Drugs Act 197319
Singapore lists mitragynine in the First Schedule to the Misuse of Drugs Act. The Act's controlled-drug provisions apply to listed substances and criminalize unauthorized possession, trafficking, import, export, and manufacture.
South KoreaIllegalMitragynine, the principal psychoactive alkaloid in kratom, is listed as a narcotic in Appendix 1 to the Narcotics Control Act Enforcement Decree. The Narcotics Control Act prohibits unauthorized handling of narcotics, including importation, possession, manufacture, and sale; kratom preparations containing mitragynine are therefore controlled as narcotics.
SwedenIllegalKratom (Mitragyna speciosa) has been classified as a narcotic in Sweden since 11 March 2025 under Annex 1 to the Ordinance (1992:1554) on control of narcotics. Unauthorised possession, use, manufacture, sale, and other handling of kratom are narcotics offences under the Narcotics Criminal Act (1968:64).
United Arab EmiratesIllegalKratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is listed in Schedule No. (4) to Federal Decree-Law No. (30) of 2021 on Combating Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, which took effect on 2 January 2022. The decree-law treats the substances in Schedules (1) through (4) as narcotic drugs; unauthorized possession, production, import, export, sale, and use are criminally prohibited.
Controlled / restricted2
UkraineRestrictedCabinet of Ministers Resolution No. 770 of 6 May 2000, as amended by Resolution No. 1306 of 15 November 2024262728
Kratom leaf (Mitragyna speciosa), mitragynine, and 7-hydroxymitragynine are listed in List No. 1 of Table II of Ukraine's controlled-substances schedule. Their circulation is restricted and subject to control measures under Ukrainian law. The amendment adding these entries took effect on 19 November 2024.
United KingdomRestrictedKratom is subject to the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016 where it is supplied, produced, imported, or exported for psychoactive consumption. The Act defines a psychoactive substance as one capable of producing a psychoactive effect that is not exempted, and its current Schedule 1 does not exempt kratom. The relevant provisions came fully into force on 26 May 2016; the offences require the statutory knowledge, suspicion, recklessness, or intended-consumption conditions.
Not scheduled2
United StatesNot scheduledControlled Substances Act, 21 U.S.C. § 811(h), and 21 C.F.R. Part 1308; DEA notices of intent, 91 Fed. Reg. 40917 (July 6, 2026) (DEA-1570) and 91 Fed. Reg. 40909 (July 6, 2026) (DEA-1644)35363738
As of July 15, 2026, kratom (Mitragyna speciosa), mitragynine, and 7-hydroxymitragynine are not federally scheduled under the Controlled Substances Act. DEA published notices of intent—not effective temporary scheduling orders—covering 7-hydroxymitragynine only above specified concentration or per-article thresholds and, separately, mitragynine pseudoindoxyl, MGM-15, and MGM-16; both notices state that an order will be published no earlier than August 5, 2026 and will take effect upon publication. The announced actions do not schedule the kratom plant or mitragynine as such, and botanical kratom at or below the stated 7-hydroxymitragynine threshold is outside the announced 7-hydroxymitragynine action.
By state
AlabamaIllegalAla. Code § 20-2-23; Ala. Admin. Code r. 420-7-2-A39
Alabama lists mitragynine and hydroxymitragynine as Schedule I controlled substances. Kratom products containing those alkaloids are therefore subject to Alabama's controlled-substance prohibitions.
ArizonaRestrictedArizona regulates kratom products rather than scheduling kratom as a controlled substance. Retailers and processors may not sell products to persons under 18 or sell products with specified adulterants, synthetic alkaloids, or more than two percent 7-hydroxymitragynine in the alkaloid fraction. Product labeling is also required.
CaliforniaNot scheduledCal. Health & Safety Code §§ 11054-1105842
California follows the federal controlled-substance schedules for kratom; San Diego has a separate municipal restriction.
GuamNot scheduledGuam Controlled Substances Act, 9 GCA ch. 6745
Guam's reviewed controlled-substances code materials do not list kratom, mitragynine, or 7-hydroxymitragynine. No kratom-specific territorial restriction or regulatory program was located in the reviewed primary legal repository.
IllinoisRestricted720 ILCS 642/546
Illinois does not schedule kratom as a controlled substance but restricts it to adults. A person under 18 may not purchase or possess kratom, and a person may not knowingly sell, buy for, distribute samples of, or furnish kratom to a person under 18.
IndianaIllegalInd. Code §§ 35-48-2-4, 35-31.5-2-32147
Indiana defines mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine as synthetic drugs. Listed synthetic drugs are Schedule I controlled substances, so kratom products containing those alkaloids are subject to Indiana's controlled-substance prohibitions.
IowaNot scheduledIowa Code ch. 124, including § 124.204 (Schedule I)48
Iowa does not list kratom, mitragynine, or 7-hydroxymitragynine in its controlled-substance schedules. Kratom is therefore not scheduled as a controlled substance under Iowa Code chapter 124.
MaineNot scheduled17-A M.R.S. ch. 45, including §§ 1102–110649
Maine does not list kratom, mitragynine, or 7-hydroxymitragynine in its scheduled-drug provisions. Kratom is therefore not scheduled under Maine's controlled-drug chapter.
MassachusettsNot scheduled
MissouriNot scheduledMo. Rev. Stat. § 195.01752
Missouri does not list kratom, mitragynine, or 7-hydroxymitragynine in its controlled-substance schedules. Kratom is therefore not scheduled as a controlled substance under Missouri law.
NebraskaLegal (regulated)Neb. Rev. Stat. §§ 71-3801–71-381553
Nebraska regulates kratom products through its Kratom Consumer Protection Act. The Act prohibits sales to persons under 21, requires product registration and labeling, and prohibits adulterated products and products made attractive to children.
NevadaLegal (regulated)Nev. Rev. Stat. § 597.99854
Nevada restricts the sale of kratom products to children and prohibits the sale of adulterated kratom products. Kratom products sold in the state must also carry ingredient and safe-use labeling.
OklahomaLegal (regulated)Okla. Stat. tit. 63, §§ 1-1432.1–1-1432.555
Oklahoma regulates kratom products through its Kratom Consumer Protection Act. Vendors may not sell nonconforming or adulterated products, products containing synthesized kratom alkaloids, or products with prohibited 7-hydroxymitragynine levels, and may not sell kratom products to persons under 18. The Act also requires product disclosures and labeling.
OregonLegal (regulated)Or. Rev. Stat. §§ 475.392–475.40456
Oregon requires a kratom processor to register before selling, distributing, or exposing a kratom product for sale. Retailers may not sell, distribute, or expose a kratom product for sale to an individual under 21. The restrictions are imposed under Oregon's kratom-specific law rather than by scheduling kratom as a controlled substance.
Rhode IslandLegal (regulated)Rhode Island regulates kratom under the Rhode Island Kratom Act, effective April 1, 2026. The Act restricts contraband products, requires licenses for manufacturers, importers, distributors, and retailers, and prohibits sale or transfer to individuals under 21. It also removes the Director of Health's authority to place or maintain mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine in Schedule I.
South DakotaLegal (regulated)South Dakota prohibits selling or distributing a kratom product to a person under 21, and prohibits underage purchase, possession, or consumption. It also prohibits products exceeding the statutory 7-hydroxymitragynine limit, containing synthetic kratom alkaloids, or containing poisonous or deleterious non-kratom substances. These are kratom-product restrictions, not controlled-substance scheduling.
TexasRestrictedTexas Health and Safety Code §§ 445.001–.00761
Texas does not schedule kratom, mitragynine, or 7-hydroxymitragynine as controlled substances. The Texas Kratom Consumer Health and Safety Protection Act regulates kratom products: it prohibits specified adulterated, synthetic, and high-7-hydroxymitragynine products and retail distribution to persons younger than 18.
UtahRestrictedUtah Code §§ 4-45-101–10862
Utah does not schedule natural kratom as a controlled substance. Its Kratom Consumer Protection Act requires product registration and regulates product composition and labeling, including a two-percent alkaloid-fraction limit for 7-hydroxymitragynine and a prohibition on sales to persons younger than 18.
VirginiaRestrictedVirginia Code § 59.1-200(A)(77)63
Virginia does not schedule kratom as a controlled substance. The Virginia Consumer Protection Act prohibits retail manufacture or sale of noncompliant kratom products, including sales to persons younger than 21, products containing synthetic material, and products exceeding the statutory 7-hydroxymitragynine limits.
WashingtonNot scheduledWashington's controlled-substance schedules do not list kratom, mitragynine, or 7-hydroxymitragynine. No Washington statute or Pharmacy Quality Assurance Commission schedule rule located in the reviewed primary materials imposes a kratom-specific statewide control or product regime.
West VirginiaRestrictedW. Va. Code §§ 19-12F-1–1166
West Virginia does not schedule kratom as a controlled substance. The Select Plant-based Product Regulation Act regulates kratom products through Agriculture Commissioner permits, business-registration requirements, age checks, testing and labeling rules, and a minimum age of 21 for sales.
WisconsinIllegalWisconsin Stat. § 961.14(4)(tb)67
Wisconsin classifies mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine as Schedule I controlled substances. Consequently, kratom products containing those alkaloids are subject to Wisconsin's controlled-substances prohibitions.
ColombiaNot scheduledResolution 315 of 202011
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) and its principal alkaloid mitragynine are not listed in Annex 1 of Colombia's Resolution 315 of 2020, the national list of specially controlled and monitored substances. The resolution extends control to mixtures and products containing substances listed in Annex 1 and to specified salts, isomers, hydrates, and related variations of those listed substances. It does not establish a class-wide analogue provision that captures kratom or mitragynine.
References
Source Pages
Citations
- Steven C. Eastlack, Elyse M. Cornett, & Alan D. Kaye. (2020). Kratom—Pharmacology, Clinical Implications, and Outlook: A Comprehensive Review. Pain and Therapy, 9(1), 55–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40122-020-00151-x123
- Kratom. Drug Enforcement Administration (n.d.). https://www.dea.gov/factsheets/kratom1
- Soumen Chakraborty, Rajendra Uprety, Amal E. Daibani, Valerie L. Rouzic, Amanda Hunkele, Kevin Appourchaux, Shainnel O. Eans, Nitin Nuthikattu, Rahul Jilakara, Lisa Thammavong, & Gavril W. Pasternak. (2021-07-21). Kratom Alkaloids as Probes for Opioid Receptor Function: Pharmacological Characterization of Minor Indole and Oxindole Alkaloids from Kratom. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 12(14), 2661–2678. https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.1c001491
- Jack E Henningfield, Marek C Chawarski, Albert Garcia-Romeu, Oliver Grundmann, Norsyifa Harun, Zurina Hassan, Christopher R McCurdy, Lance R McMahon, Abhisheak Sharma, Mohammed Shoaib, Darshan Singh, Kirsten E Smith, Marc T Swogger, Balasingam Vicknasingam, Zachary Walsh, Daniel W Wang, & Marilyn A Huestis. (2023). Kratom withdrawal: Discussions and conclusions of a scientific expert forum. Drug and Alcohol Dependence Reports, 7, 100142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dadr.2023.1001421
- Cornel N. Stanciu, Samantha A. Gnanasegaram, Saeed Ahmed, & Thomas Penders. (January 2019). Kratom Withdrawal: A Systematic Review with Case Series. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 51(1), 12–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2018.15621331
- Jonathan Schimmel, & Richard C. Dart. (February 2020). Kratom (''Mitragyna speciosa'') Liver Injury: A Comprehensive Review. Drugs, 80(3), 263–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-019-01242-61
- Sasha W. Eisenman. (2014). Kratom and Other Mitragynines: The Chemistry and Pharmacology of Opioids from a Non-Opium. 57–76.1
- Darshan Singh, Suresh Narayanan, & Balasingam Vicknasingam. (September 2016). Traditional and non-traditional uses of Mitragynine (Kratom): A survey of the literature. Brain Research Bulletin, 126(Pt 1), 41–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.05.00412
- Pascal Tanguay. (April 2011). Kratom in Thailand: Decriminalisation and Community Control?. Transnational Institute. https://www.tni.org/files/download/kratom-briefing-dlr13.pdf12
- Poisons Standard — www.tga.gov.au. tga.gov.au (n.d.). https://www.tga.gov.au/resources/publication/scheduling-decisions/final-decision-kratom-mitragynine1
Further Reading
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Recent changes8 human edits · latest
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15 August 2026
Lyrea · Updated the article
24 January 2026
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
Josie Kins · Updated the article · also 1,4-Butanediol, 1B-LSD, 1cP-AL-LAD and 573 more
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