Hydromorphone

Dilaudid, Dihydromorphinone, Palladone, Exalgo, Jurnista

Psychoactive Class

Chemical Class

Hydromorphone is a semisynthetic opioid of the morphinan class, derived as a hydrogenated ketone of morphine. First introduced to the mass market in 1926 under the brand name Dilaudid,¹² it is prescribed for the management of moderate to severe pain.³ Hydromorphone is notably more potent than morphine¹ and carries a high potential for addiction and dependence.³ It has low oral bioavailability⁴ and is most commonly administered intravenously in clinical settings.

Dosage & Duration

Dosage

Threshold~0.5 mg

Light0.5-2 mg

Moderate2-4 mg

Strong4-8 mg

Heavy8+ mg

Bioavailability

~60%

Duration

Onset5-15 minutes

Come Up60-120 minutes

Peak15-20 minutes

Offset30-60 minutes

After Effects1-12 hours

Total4-6 hours

Half-life

2-3 hours

Subjective Effects

The hydromorphone experience is dominated by profound pain relief, mood lift, and a warm, sedated body state characteristic of potent opioids. As a semi-synthetic morphinan roughly 5-7 times more potent than morphine with a shorter duration, its effects arrive with considerable intensity but resolve comparatively quickly. Compared to morphine, it is associated with a lower incidence of itching and nausea, though both still occur. Sensory and cognitive alteration beyond sedation and mental clouding is minimal, making the experience primarily physical and emotional in character.

Physical

The body experience is one of deep relaxation, analgesia, and sedation, accompanied by a side effect load that can include itching, constipation, nausea, dry mouth, and sweating. Respiratory depression, low blood pressure, and slowed heart rate become dangerous at high doses, where drowsiness can progress to unresponsiveness.

Analgesia

Cough suppression

Cardiovascular

Sedation

Uncomfortable

Dry mouth Increased perspiration Headaches

Cognitive

The headspace centers on euphoria and an elevated mood accompanied by mental clouding and slowed thought. Mood changes can also tilt toward dysphoria in some individuals, and prolonged high-dose use has been associated with agitation and cognitive dysfunction.

Emotional

Suppressions

Reagent Testing

Loading reagent data

Expected colorimetric results are being prepared.

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Hydromorphone is a semi-synthetic opioid that acts primarily as a μ-opioid receptor agonist, with approximately five to seven times the potency of morphine on a per milligram basis.³ It also binds to kappa-opioid receptors as an agonist and to delta-opioid receptors as a partial agonist, though with minor affinity at both.⁵ As a hydrogenated ketone of morphine, it possesses higher lipid solubility, enabling more rapid and complete penetration of the blood-brain barrier.¹

Pharmacokinetics

When taken orally, hydromorphone is absorbed primarily in the upper small intestine and undergoes extensive first-pass hepatic metabolism, resulting in an oral bioavailability of approximately 60%.⁶ The primary metabolic pathway is glucuronidation by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase-2B7 (UGT2B7), producing hydromorphone-3-glucuronide as the principal urinary metabolite.⁷⁶ Unlike many other opioids in its class, hydromorphone is not primarily metabolized through CYP450 enzymes, though minor CYP3A4- and CYP2C9-mediated pathways produce norhydromorphone.⁸ Protein binding is low (8 to 19%) and the elimination half-life of the immediate-release formulation is approximately 2 to 3 hours.³ Parenteral administration yields a higher bioavailability of approximately 78%, with near-immediate peak plasma levels. In patients with renal impairment, the half-life may increase to as much as 40 hours.³

Interactions

Dangerous

Highest risk

These combinations are considered extremely harmful and should always be avoided. Reactions to these drugs taken in combination are highly unpredictable and have a potential to cause death.

AlcoholBenzodiazepinesCocaineDXMGHB/GBLKetamineMXEPregabalinTramadol

Unsafe

Avoid

There is considerable risk of physical harm when taking these combinations, they should be avoided where possible.

Diphenhydramine

Caution

Use caution

These combinations are not usually physically harmful, but may produce undesirable effects, such as physical discomfort or overstimulation. Extreme use may cause physical health issues. Synergistic effects may be unpredictable. Care should be taken when choosing to use this combination.

AmphetaminesMAOIsMephedroneNitrous oxidePCP

TripSit

Tolerance

Full Tolerance

Prolonged repeated hydromorphone use can produce tolerance to many effects, including therapeutic benefits. Once tolerance develops, comparable effects may require larger doses. The pace is effect-specific, and constipation-related tolerance tends to appear more slowly than tolerance to other opioid effects.

Cross Tolerance

All other opioids

Baseline Reset

After a period without opioid use, fatal overdose risk rises sharply because physical tolerance to respiratory and other depressant effects is reduced. For someone resuming use after extended abstinence, a much smaller fraction of the previous usual dose is safer. Environmental context may also influence tolerance, as studies suggest familiar drug-associated settings can provide some conditioned tolerance.

Harm Potential

Addiction & Dependence

Psychological

High

Hydromorphone is considered extremely addictive with high abuse potential, classified under Schedule II.⁴ Compulsive redosing is commonly reported, and the intense physical and cognitive euphoria contribute to its reinforcing properties.

Physical

High

Physical dependence develops with chronic use, and withdrawal symptoms may occur if the drug is suddenly stopped.⁴ Withdrawal effects include abdominal pain, anxiety, panic attacks, depression, muscle and joint pain, nausea, vomiting, sweating, and piloerection. Some users cannot tolerate the withdrawal symptoms, resulting in continued drug use.

Toxicity

Respiratory

Heavy dosages cause respiratory depression that can progress to fatal or dangerous levels of oxygen deprivation; this effect is dose-related and represents the primary cause of opioid overdose deaths.⁴

Central Nervous System

Prolonged use, high dosage, or kidney dysfunction may cause neuroexcitatory symptoms including tremor, myoclonus, agitation, and cognitive dysfunction; this neurotoxicity is less pronounced than with some other opioid classes such as pethidine derivatives.⁹

Endocrine

Heavy chronic use often causes temporary hypogonadism or hormone imbalance, consistent with other opioids in this class.¹¹

Gastrointestinal

Chronic use commonly causes constipation, with tolerance to this effect developing particularly slowly compared to other opioid effects; this is one of the few long-term complications from unadulterated hydromorphone aside from dependence.⁴

Urinary

Urinary retention is recognized as a major hazard of hydromorphone use, occurring as an acute effect during intoxication.⁴

Psychosis Risk

Hallucinations may occur as a side effect, listed among more common adverse effects particularly in ambulatory patients and those not experiencing severe pain.⁴

Seizure Risk

Seizures are listed among serious potential side effects, though they are not commonly reported with hydromorphone alone and appear to be a relatively rare occurrence.⁴

History & Culture

Discovery and Commercial Introduction

Hydromorphone is a semi-synthetic opioid derived from morphine through hydrogenation, producing a more potent hydrogenated ketone derivative. The compound has been available for clinical use since approximately 1920 and was patented in 1923.…

Legality

International

Hydromorphone is listed in Schedule I of the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. It is not listed under the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. It is not listed under the 1988 Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.

By Country

United StatesIllegalSchedule II

21 CFR 1308.12, Schedule II⁶⁰

Hydromorphone is regulated as a controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act.⁶¹ Selling it requires a DEA license, and buying or possessing it is unlawful unless covered by a valid license or prescription. It is classified as having a high potential for addiction while also having accepted medical use.

AustriaPrescription onlyAnhang I

Suchtgiftverordnung, Anhang I¹⁷

Legal for medical use under the Arzneimittelgesetz (AMG). Possession or sale without a valid prescription is illegal under the Suchtmittelgesetz (SMG - Narcotics Act).¹⁸¹⁹

CanadaIllegalSchedule I

Schedule I, Controlled Drugs and Substances Act²¹

Controlled under Schedule I of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act.²² Note that Canadian schedules differ significantly from US scheduling classifications.

ColombiaRestrictedState monopoly

Resolution No. 116 of 2026, Annex 2²⁵

Under Colombia's current technical annex, hydromorphone is classified as a substance under State monopoly. The same resolution separately lists hydromorphone hydrochloride as a State-monopoly special-control medicine. Resolution No. 116 took effect on 27 January 2026 and replaces the technical annexes adopted by Resolution No. 315 of 2020.

DenmarkPrescription onlyList B

Bekendtgørelse om euforiserende stoffer (BEK nr. 405 of 26 March 2026), List B, no. 229²⁸

Hydromorphon (INN) is listed at no. 229 of List B in Denmark's current executive order on euphoriant substances. List B substances may be used only for medical or scientific purposes; the order permits patients to receive and possess them under a prescription or treatment arrangement.

IrelandPrescription onlySchedule 2

Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2017 (S.I. No. 173/2017), Schedule 2^30313233

Hydromorphone is expressly listed in Schedule 2 of the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2017. The Regulations prohibit production, supply, importation, and export except as authorised, and allow possession for medical, dental, or veterinary administration under a practitioner's directions; Schedule 2 prescriptions and dispensing are subject to the Regulations' prescription requirements.

JapanPrescription onlyNarcotic

Narcotics and Psychotropics Control Act³⁶

ヒドロモルフォン is a narcotic under Japan's narcotics-control framework. Its import, export, manufacture, transfer and medical handling are regulated under the Act and the controlled-medicines system.

NetherlandsIllegalList I

Opiumwet, List I and Article 2³⁸

Hydromorphone, listed as hydromorfon, appears in List I of the current Dutch Opium Act. Article 2 prohibits importing or exporting, preparing, processing, selling, supplying, transporting, possessing, and manufacturing List I substances, subject to the Act's statutory exceptions and exemptions.

PhilippinesPrescription onlyDangerous drug

Philippine Schedules of Dangerous Drugs, Annex A⁴²⁴³

Hydromorphone is listed in the Philippine Schedules of Dangerous Drugs. It is regulated within the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act framework for controlled substances.

RussiaSchedule IICitation needed

Classified as a Schedule II controlled substance under Russian narcotics legislation. Unauthorized possession and distribution are prohibited.

South KoreaRestrictedNarcotic

Narcotics Control Act Enforcement Decree, Annex 1⁵⁰⁵¹

South Korea's current Enforcement Decree lists hydromorphone (하이드로모르폰) in Annex 1 as a narcotic under Article 2(2)(d) of the Narcotics Control Act. The Annex provides that this class includes the named substances and their salts.

SwitzerlandPrescription onlyVerzeichnis a

Verordnung des EDI vom 30. Mai 2011 über die Verzeichnisse der Betäubungsmittel, psychotropen Stoffe, Vorläuferstoffe und Hilfschemikalien (Betäubungsmittelverzeichnisverordnung, BetmVV-EDI; SR 812.121.11)⁵²⁵³

Controlled substance specifically listed under Verzeichnis A of Swiss narcotics legislation. Medicinal use is permitted with appropriate authorization.

UkrainePrescription onlyTable II List 1

Cabinet of Ministers Resolution No. 770 of 6 May 2000, Table II, List No. 1; Law of Ukraine No. 60/95-VR, Article 27⁵⁴⁵⁵

Hydromorphone (dihydromorphinone) is listed in Table II, List No. 1 of Ukraine's national controlled-substances list, which covers narcotic drugs and plants whose circulation is restricted. Under Article 27 of Law No. 60/95-VR, an individual may acquire a medicinal product containing a Table II substance for medical indications only on an electronic doctor's prescription; retail supply is likewise by electronic prescription from a licensed pharmacy.

AustraliaPrescription onlySchedule 8

Therapeutic Goods (Poisons Standard—February 2026) Instrument 2026, Schedule 8¹⁶

Controlled drug under the Poisons Standard. Illegal to possess without a valid prescription or license. Schedule 8 substances are those with high abuse potential requiring restricted supply.

BrazilPrescription onlyList A1

ANVISA RDC No. 985 of 29 July 2025²⁰

Hidromorfona is in Brazil's List A1 of narcotic substances. It is subject to the special prescription and dispensing controls that apply to listed narcotic medicines.

ChilePrescription onlyLista I

Supreme Decree No. 404 of 1983 (Reglamento de Estupefacientes), List I and Article 23²³²⁴

Chile’s current Reglamento de Estupefacientes lists hidromorfona (dihidromorfinona) in List I. Article 23 provides that products containing substances in Lists I and II may be dispensed to the public by pharmacies or laboratories only with a receta cheque or receta médica retenida, according to the product’s sale condition.

Czech RepublicPrescription onlyList No. 1

Government Regulation No. 463/2013 Coll., List No. 1; Act No. 167/1998 Coll., § 13(1)²⁶²⁷

The current e-Sbírka consolidation of Government Regulation No. 463/2013 Coll. expressly lists Hydromorfon in List No. 1 of narcotic substances; the current consolidated text does not list it in List No. 8. Under Section 13(1) of Act No. 167/1998 Coll., a medicinal product containing a List No. 1 substance not also in List No. 8 may be prescribed by a physician and supplied by a pharmacist only on the specified high-addictiveness electronic prescription, blue-stripe paper prescription, or blue-stripe requisition.

GermanyPrescription onlyAnlage III

Anlage III, Betäubungsmittelgesetz²⁹

Controlled substance under Anlage III of the Betäubungsmittelgesetz (Narcotics Act).²⁹ Can only be prescribed using a narcotic prescription form (Betäubungsmittelrezept).

ItalyPrescription onlyMedicines table A

D.P.R. 309/1990, Article 14, medicines table, Section A³⁴³⁵

Under the current D.P.R. 309/1990, section A of the medicines table covers medicinal products containing natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic opioid analgesics. Hydromorphone supplied as such a medicinal product is therefore in section A. Section A medicines require the Ministry-approved prescription form and are ordinarily limited to a thirty-day course; the statute preserves any further AIFA authorization conditions.

MexicoPrescription onlyEstupefaciente (receta especial)

Ley General de Salud, Articles 226(I), 234, and 241³⁷

Mexico's current General Health Law lists hydromorphone (dihydromorphinone) as an estupefaciente. Medicines in the law's narcotics chapter may be acquired only with a special prescription or permit, and prescriptions for estupefacientes must use special prescription forms with a barcode assigned by the health authority. Hydromorphone is therefore available only through Mexico's special-prescription narcotics-control regime.

New ZealandPrescription onlyClass B3

Medicines Regulations 1984, Schedule 1; Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, Schedule 2, Part 3³⁹⁴⁰⁴¹

Hydromorphone is classified as a prescription medicine in New Zealand. It is also a Class B3 controlled drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975. The Ministry of Health's current Medicines Classification Database records both classifications for hydromorphone, drawing them from Schedule 1 of the Medicines Regulations 1984 and the schedules to the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975.

PolandPrescription onlyI-N

Ustawa z dnia 29 lipca 2005 r. o przeciwdziałaniu narkomanii, art. 33 ust. 1 i art. 41 ust. 2, w zw. z rozporządzeniem Ministra Zdrowia z dnia 17 sierpnia 2018 r. w sprawie wykazu substancji psychotropowych, środków odurzających oraz nowych substancji psychoaktywnych (tekst jedn. Dz.U. 2024 poz. 1139), załącznik nr 2, część 1, lp. 84^44454647

Hydromorphone (HYDROMORFON) is expressly listed at item 84 of the Group I-N narcotic-drugs schedule. Article 33(1) allows Group I-N drugs only for medical, industrial, or research purposes. Under Article 41(2), preparations containing narcotic drugs are dispensed by pharmacies only on a specially marked prescription or requisition; this entry describes the dispensing rule for preparations rather than a general authorization to possess the substance. The 2025 and 2026 amendments to the schedule do not amend item 84.

SingaporeIllegalClass A

Misuse of Drugs Act 1973, First Schedule (Class A drugs)⁴⁸⁴⁹

Singapore’s First Schedule lists Hydromorphone as a Class A controlled drug (item 67). Except as authorised under the Misuse of Drugs Act, possession and consumption of a controlled drug are offences; trafficking and import or export are separately prohibited.

SwedenPrescription onlyCitation needed

Regulated as a prescription-only medication. Available for medical use but requires valid prescription from authorized healthcare provider.

TurkeyRed prescription

Requires a 'red prescription' (kırmızı reçete) for dispensing, indicating strict controlled substance status. Illegal to sell or possess without valid prescription.

United KingdomIllegalClass A

Class A, Misuse of Drugs Act 1971; Schedule 2, Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001⁵⁶⁵⁷

Controlled under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971.⁵⁸ Class A designation carries the most severe penalties for unauthorized possession or supply. Schedule 2 permits medical prescribing under strict controls.⁵⁹

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Hydromorphone

Dilaudid, Dihydromorphinone, Palladone, Exalgo, Jurnista

Psychoactive Class

Opioid Sedative Depressant

Chemical Class

Morphinan

Dosage & Duration

Dosage

Threshold~0.5 mg

Light0.5-2 mg

Moderate2-4 mg

Strong4-8 mg

Heavy8+ mg

Bioavailability

~60%

Duration

Onset5-15 minutes

Come Up60-120 minutes

Peak15-20 minutes

Offset30-60 minutes

After Effects1-12 hours

Total4-6 hours

Half-life

2-3 hours

Subjective Effects

Physical

Analgesia

Cough suppression

Cardiovascular

Sedation

Uncomfortable

Dry mouth Increased perspiration Headaches

Cognitive

Emotional

Suppressions

Reagent Testing

Loading reagent data

Expected colorimetric results are being prepared.

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacokinetics

Interactions

Dangerous

Highest risk

These combinations are considered extremely harmful and should always be avoided. Reactions to these drugs taken in combination are highly unpredictable and have a potential to cause death.

AlcoholBenzodiazepinesCocaineDXMGHB/GBLKetamineMXEPregabalinTramadol

Unsafe

Avoid

There is considerable risk of physical harm when taking these combinations, they should be avoided where possible.

Diphenhydramine

Caution

Use caution

AmphetaminesMAOIsMephedroneNitrous oxidePCP

TripSit

Tolerance

Full Tolerance

Cross Tolerance

All other opioids

Baseline Reset

Harm Potential

Addiction & Dependence

Psychological

High

Physical

High

Toxicity

Respiratory

Central Nervous System

Endocrine

Heavy chronic use often causes temporary hypogonadism or hormone imbalance, consistent with other opioids in this class.¹¹

Gastrointestinal

Urinary

Urinary retention is recognized as a major hazard of hydromorphone use, occurring as an acute effect during intoxication.⁴

Psychosis Risk

Hallucinations may occur as a side effect, listed among more common adverse effects particularly in ambulatory patients and those not experiencing severe pain.⁴

Seizure Risk

Seizures are listed among serious potential side effects, though they are not commonly reported with hydromorphone alone and appear to be a relatively rare occurrence.⁴

History & Culture

Discovery and Commercial Introduction

Legality

International

By Country

United StatesIllegalSchedule II

21 CFR 1308.12, Schedule II⁶⁰

AustriaPrescription onlyAnhang I

Suchtgiftverordnung, Anhang I¹⁷

Legal for medical use under the Arzneimittelgesetz (AMG). Possession or sale without a valid prescription is illegal under the Suchtmittelgesetz (SMG - Narcotics Act).¹⁸¹⁹

CanadaIllegalSchedule I

Schedule I, Controlled Drugs and Substances Act²¹

Controlled under Schedule I of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act.²² Note that Canadian schedules differ significantly from US scheduling classifications.

ColombiaRestrictedState monopoly

Resolution No. 116 of 2026, Annex 2²⁵

DenmarkPrescription onlyList B

Bekendtgørelse om euforiserende stoffer (BEK nr. 405 of 26 March 2026), List B, no. 229²⁸

IrelandPrescription onlySchedule 2

Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2017 (S.I. No. 173/2017), Schedule 2^30313233

JapanPrescription onlyNarcotic

Narcotics and Psychotropics Control Act³⁶

NetherlandsIllegalList I

Opiumwet, List I and Article 2³⁸

PhilippinesPrescription onlyDangerous drug

Philippine Schedules of Dangerous Drugs, Annex A⁴²⁴³

Hydromorphone is listed in the Philippine Schedules of Dangerous Drugs. It is regulated within the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act framework for controlled substances.

RussiaSchedule IICitation needed

Classified as a Schedule II controlled substance under Russian narcotics legislation. Unauthorized possession and distribution are prohibited.

South KoreaRestrictedNarcotic

Narcotics Control Act Enforcement Decree, Annex 1⁵⁰⁵¹

SwitzerlandPrescription onlyVerzeichnis a

Controlled substance specifically listed under Verzeichnis A of Swiss narcotics legislation. Medicinal use is permitted with appropriate authorization.

UkrainePrescription onlyTable II List 1

Cabinet of Ministers Resolution No. 770 of 6 May 2000, Table II, List No. 1; Law of Ukraine No. 60/95-VR, Article 27⁵⁴⁵⁵

AustraliaPrescription onlySchedule 8

Therapeutic Goods (Poisons Standard—February 2026) Instrument 2026, Schedule 8¹⁶

Controlled drug under the Poisons Standard. Illegal to possess without a valid prescription or license. Schedule 8 substances are those with high abuse potential requiring restricted supply.

BrazilPrescription onlyList A1

ANVISA RDC No. 985 of 29 July 2025²⁰

Hidromorfona is in Brazil's List A1 of narcotic substances. It is subject to the special prescription and dispensing controls that apply to listed narcotic medicines.

ChilePrescription onlyLista I

Supreme Decree No. 404 of 1983 (Reglamento de Estupefacientes), List I and Article 23²³²⁴

Czech RepublicPrescription onlyList No. 1

Government Regulation No. 463/2013 Coll., List No. 1; Act No. 167/1998 Coll., § 13(1)²⁶²⁷

GermanyPrescription onlyAnlage III

Anlage III, Betäubungsmittelgesetz²⁹

Controlled substance under Anlage III of the Betäubungsmittelgesetz (Narcotics Act).²⁹ Can only be prescribed using a narcotic prescription form (Betäubungsmittelrezept).

ItalyPrescription onlyMedicines table A

D.P.R. 309/1990, Article 14, medicines table, Section A³⁴³⁵

MexicoPrescription onlyEstupefaciente (receta especial)

Ley General de Salud, Articles 226(I), 234, and 241³⁷

New ZealandPrescription onlyClass B3

Medicines Regulations 1984, Schedule 1; Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, Schedule 2, Part 3³⁹⁴⁰⁴¹

PolandPrescription onlyI-N

SingaporeIllegalClass A

Misuse of Drugs Act 1973, First Schedule (Class A drugs)⁴⁸⁴⁹

SwedenPrescription onlyCitation needed

Regulated as a prescription-only medication. Available for medical use but requires valid prescription from authorized healthcare provider.

TurkeyRed prescription

Requires a 'red prescription' (kırmızı reçete) for dispensing, indicating strict controlled substance status. Illegal to sell or possess without valid prescription.

United KingdomIllegalClass A

Class A, Misuse of Drugs Act 1971; Schedule 2, Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001⁵⁶⁵⁷

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Citations

Suggest an edit

Spotted a mistake, an outdated claim, or something missing from the Hydromorphone article? Send the editors a private note. Feedback lands in a moderation queue and is never shown on the site.

Hydromorphone

Contents

Dosage & Duration

Dosage

Duration

Subjective Effects

Physical

Analgesia

Cardiovascular

Sedation

Uncomfortable

Cognitive

Emotional

Suppressions

Reagent Testing

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacokinetics

Interactions

Dangerous

Unsafe

Caution

Tolerance

Harm Potential

Addiction & Dependence

Psychological

Physical

Toxicity

Psychosis Risk

Seizure Risk

History & Culture

Discovery and Commercial Introduction

Legality

International

By Country

References

Source Pages

Citations

Further Reading

Suggest an edit

Hydromorphone

Contents

Dosage & Duration

Dosage

Duration

Subjective Effects

Physical

Analgesia

Cardiovascular

Sedation

Uncomfortable

Cognitive

Emotional

Suppressions

Reagent Testing

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacokinetics

Interactions

Dangerous

Unsafe

Caution

Tolerance

Harm Potential

Addiction & Dependence

Psychological

Physical

Toxicity

Psychosis Risk

Seizure Risk

History & Culture

Discovery and Commercial Introduction

Legality

International

By Country

References

Source Pages

Citations

Further Reading

Suggest an edit