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      Catharsis

      Catharsis (from the Greek katharsis) is precisely defined as a cleansing, with no substantial consensus in regards to its exact meaning. [1] Generally, this effect is a form of emotional insight. [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] The process typically starts off being difficult to fully face and is sometimes accompanied by physically intense sensations which typically lead into pronounced emotion enhancement, deep introspection, and an analysis of one's character and past events. [24] During this experience many people describe reliving traumatic events, witnessing painful memories, having enhanced mental imagery, reliving of past experiences, painful feelings in general, and a release of previously repressed emotions. [4] [6] [24] This process of integrating manifestations of conflicts and traumas into long-term stable memories is often described as feeling very natural.

      This effect can be helpful in aiding an individual overcome conditions such as addiction, [4] [7] post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and other personal afflictions relating to suffered past traumas. [8] After this experience is over, most users report feelings of increased life satisfaction, rejuvenation, and spirituality enhancement which may last days, weeks, or even years after the event is over. [6] [9]

      Catharsis is most commonly induced in therapeutic settings under the influence of moderate dosages of psychedelics compounds, such as LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline. [8] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] However, it can also occur to a lesser extent under the influence of entactogens, dissociatives, [8] [12] [13] and meditation.

      Analysis

      The culturally dominant definition of catharsis, releasing the pressure of negative emotions, was popularized by both Josef Breuer and Sigmund Freud as the hydraulic model in psychoanalysis [16] [17] and Jakob Bernays's purgation theory in philology. [1] [18] [19] There is a large amount of discussion of these theories' unsuitability towards the emotion of anger, showing that acting aggressively produces more aggression. [16] [17] [20] [21] Aggression studies' applicability towards catharsis can be called into question though, specifically regarding the nature of security required to experience this effect. [22] It is also notable that Freud himself abandoned this model in practice, favouring the psychoanalytical technique of free association. [23]

      References

      1. [1][2]         Solbakk, J. H. (2006). Catharsis and moral therapy II: An Aristotelian account. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 9(2), 141-153. | https://doi.org/10.1007/s11019-005-8319-1
      2. Roseman, L., Nutt, D. J., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2018). Quality of acute psychedelic experience predicts therapeutic efficacy of psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression. Frontiers in pharmacology, 8, 974. | https://dx.doi.org/10.3389%2Ffphar.2017.00974
      3. Tesser, A., Leone, C., & Clary, E. G. (1978). Affect control: Process constraints versus catharsis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2(3), 265-274. | https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01185788
      4. [1][2][3]         Winkelman, M. (2001). Psychointegrators: Multidisciplinary perspectives on the therapeutic effects of hallucinogens. Complementary Health Practice Review, 6(3), 219-237. | https://doi.org/10.1177/153321010100600304
      5. Kaelen, M., Barrett, F. S., Roseman, L., Lorenz, R., Family, N., Bolstridge, M., ... & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2015). LSD enhances the emotional response to music. Psychopharmacology, 232(19), 3607-3614. | https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-015-4014-y
      6. [1][2][3]         Gasser, P., Kirchner, K., & Passie, T. (2015). LSD-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with a life-threatening disease: a qualitative study of acute and sustained subjective effects. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29(1), 57-68. | https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881114555249
      7. Belser, Alexander B.; Agin-Liebes, Gabrielle; Swift, T. Cody; Terrana, Sara; Devenot, Neşe; Friedman, Harris L.; Guss, Jeffrey; Bossis, Anthony; Ross, Stephen (2017). "Patient Experiences of Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 57 (4): 354–388. | https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022167817706884
      8. Bogenschutz, M. P., & Johnson, M. W. (2016). Classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addictions. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 64, 250-258. | https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.03.002
      9. [1][2][3]         Garcia-Romeu, A., Kersgaard, B., & Addy, P. H. (2016). Clinical applications of hallucinogens: A review. Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology, 24(4), 229. | https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Fpha0000084
      10. Carbonaro, T. M., Bradstreet, M. P., Barrett, F. S., MacLean, K. A., Jesse, R., Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2016). Survey study of challenging experiences after ingesting psilocybin mushrooms: Acute and enduring positive and negative consequences. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 30(12), 1268-1278. | https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F0269881116662634
      11. Winkelman, M. (1991). Therapeutic effects of hallucinogens. Anthropology of Consciousness, 2(3‐4), 15-19. | https://doi.org/10.1525/ac.1991.2.3-4.15
      12. Hartogsohn, I. (2018). The Meaning-Enhancing Properties of Psychedelics and Their Mediator Role in Psychedelic Therapy, Spirituality, and Creativity. Frontiers in neuroscience, 12, 129. | https://dx.doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnins.2018.00129
      13. [1][2]         Wolfson, P. E. (2014). Psychedelic experiential pharmacology: pioneering clinical explorations with Salvador Roquet (How i came to all of this: ketamine, admixtures and adjuvants, Don Juan and Carlos Castaneda too): an interview with Richard Yensen. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 33(2), 11. | http://dx.doi.org/10.24972/ijts.2014.33.2.160
      14. [1][2]         Kolp, E., Friedman, H. L., Krupitsky, E., Jansen, K., Sylvester, M., Young, M. S., & Kolp, A. (2014). Ketamine Psychedelic Psychotherapy: Focus on its Pharmacology, Phenomenology, and Clinical Applications. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 33(2), 8. | http://ketamineinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/files/Phenomenology-of-Ketamine.pdf
      15. Gasser, P., Holstein, D., Michel, Y., Doblin, R., Yazar-Klosinski, B., Passie, T., & Brenneisen, R. (2014). Safety and efficacy of lysergic acid diethylamide-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with life-threatening diseases. The Journal of nervous and mental disease, 202(7), 513. | https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000113
      16. [1][2]         Bushman, B. J. (2002). Does venting anger feed or extinguish the flame? Catharsis, rumination, distraction, anger, and aggressive responding. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 28(6), 724-731. | http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167202289002
      17. [1][2]         Bohart, A. C. (1980). Toward a cognitive theory of catharsis. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 17(2), 192. | https://doi.org/10.1037/h0085911
      18. Golden, L. (1973). The purgation theory of catharsis. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 31(4), 473-479. | https://doi.org/10.2307/429320
      19. Porter, J. I. (2015). Jacob Bernays and the Catharsis of Modernity. Tragedy and the Idea of Modernity, 15-41. | https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198727798.003.0002
      20. Bushman, B. J., Baumeister, R. F., & Stack, A. D. (1999). Catharsis, aggression, and persuasive influence: Self-fulfilling or self-defeating prophecies?. Journal of personality and social psychology, 76(3), 367. | https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.3.367
      21. Bushman, B. J., Baumeister, R. F., & Phillips, C. M. (2001). Do people aggress to improve their mood? Catharsis beliefs, affect regulation opportunity, and aggressive responding. Journal of personality and social psychology, 81(1), 17. | https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.17
      22. Geen, R. G., & Quanty, M. B. (1977). The Catharsis of Aggression: An Evaluation of a Hypothesis. In Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 1-37). Academic Press. | https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60353-6
      23. Nichols, M. P., & Efran, J. S. (1985). Catharsis in psychotherapy: A new perspective. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 22(1), 46. | https://doi.org/10.1037/h0088525
      24. Belser, Alexander B.; Agin-Liebes, Gabrielle; Swift, T. Cody; Terrana, Sara; Devenot, Neşe; Friedman, Harris L.; Guss, Jeffrey; Bossis, Anthony; Ross, Stephen (2017). "Patient Experiences of Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 57 (4): 354–388. | https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022167817706884

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      cognitive
      psychedelic
      psychological state

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